610 Medizin und Gesundheit
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ABSTRACT
The highly conserved heterotrimeric protein kinase SNF1 is important for metabolic adaptations in the pathogenic yeast Candida albicans. A key function of SNF1 is to inactivate the repressor protein Mig1 and thereby allow the expression of genes that are required for the utilization of alternative carbon sources when the preferred carbon source, glucose, is absent or becomes limiting. However, how SNF1 controls Mig1 activity in C. albicans has remained elusive. Using a phosphoproteomics approach, we found that Mig1 is phosphorylated at multiple serine residues. Replacement of these serine residues by nonphosphorylatable alanine residues strongly increased the repressor activity of Mig1 in cells lacking a functional SNF1 complex, indicating that additional protein kinases are involved in the regulation of Mig1. Unlike wild-type Mig1, whose levels strongly decreased when the cells were grown on sucrose or glycerol instead of glucose, the levels of a mutant Mig1 protein lacking nine phosphorylation sites remained high under these conditions. Despite the increased protein levels and the absence of multiple phosphorylation sites, cells with a functional SNF1 complex could still sufficiently inhibit the hyperactive Mig1 to enable wild-type growth on alternative carbon sources. In line with this, phosphorylated forms of the mutant Mig1 were still detected in the presence and absence of a functional SNF1, demonstrating that Mig1 contains additional, unidentified phosphorylation sites and that downstream protein kinases are involved in the control of Mig1 activity by SNF1.
IMPORTANCE
The SNF1 protein kinase signaling pathway, which is highly conserved in eukaryotic cells, is important for metabolic adaptations in the pathogenic yeast Candida albicans. However, so far, it has remained elusive how SNF1 controls the activity of one of its main effectors, the repressor protein Mig1 that inhibits the expression of genes required for the utilization of alternative carbon sources when glucose is available. In this study, we have identified multiple phosphorylation sites in Mig1 that contribute to its inactivation. Mutation of these sites strongly increased Mig1 repressor activity in the absence of SNF1, but SNF1 could still sufficiently inhibit the hyperactive Mig1 to enable growth on alternative carbon sources. These findings reveal features of Mig1 that are important for controlling its repressor activity. Furthermore, they demonstrate that both SNF1 and additional protein kinases regulate Mig1 in this pathogenic yeast.
Abstract
Protein kinases are central components of almost all signaling pathways that control cellular activities. In the model organism Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the paralogous protein kinases Ypk1 and Ypk2, which control membrane lipid homeostasis, are essential for viability, and previous studies strongly indicated that this is also the case for their single ortholog Ypk1 in the pathogenic yeast Candida albicans. Here, using FLP-mediated inducible gene deletion, we reveal that C. albicans ypk1Δ mutants are viable but slow-growing, explaining prior failures to obtain null mutants. Phenotypic analyses of the mutants showed that the functions of Ypk1 in regulating sphingolipid biosynthesis and cell membrane lipid asymmetry are conserved, but the consequences of YPK1 deletion are milder than in S. cerevisiae. Mutational studies demonstrated that the highly conserved PDK1 phosphorylation site T548 in its activation loop is essential for Ypk1 function, whereas the TORC2 phosphorylation sites S687 and T705 at the C-terminus are important for Ypk1-dependent resistance to membrane stress. Unexpectedly, Pkh1, the single C. albicans orthologue of Pkh1/Pkh2, which mediate Ypk1 phosphorylation at the PDK1 site in S. cerevisiae, was not required for normal growth of C. albicans under nonstressed conditions, and Ypk1 phosphorylation at T548 was only slightly reduced in pkh1Δ mutants. We found that another protein kinase, Pkh3, whose ortholog in S. cerevisiae cannot substitute Pkh1/2, acts redundantly with Pkh1 to activate Ypk1 in C. albicans. No phenotypic effects were observed in cells lacking Pkh3 alone, but pkh1Δ pkh3Δ double mutants had a severe growth defect and Ypk1 phosphorylation at T548 was completely abolished. These results establish that Ypk1 is not essential for viability in C. albicans and that, despite its generally conserved function, the Ypk1 signaling pathway is rewired in this pathogenic yeast and includes a novel upstream kinase to activate Ypk1 by phosphorylation at the PDK1 site.
Author summary
Protein kinases are key components of cellular signaling pathways, and elucidating the specific roles of individual kinases is important to understand how organisms adapt to changes in their environment. The protein kinase Ypk1 is highly conserved in eukaryotic organisms and crucial for the maintenance of cell membrane homeostasis. It was previously thought that Ypk1 is essential for viability in the pathogenic yeast Candida albicans, as in the model organism Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Here, by using forced, inducible gene deletion, we reveal that C. albicans mutants lacking Ypk1 are viable but have a strong growth defect. The phenotypes of the mutants indicate that the known functions of Ypk1 are conserved in C. albicans, but loss of this kinase has less severe consequences than in S. cerevisiae. We also unravel the puzzling previous observation that C. albicans mutants lacking the Ypk1-activating kinase Pkh1, which is essential in S. cerevisiae, have no obvious growth defects. We show that the protein kinase Pkh3, which has not previously been implicated in the Ypk1 signaling pathway, can substitute Pkh1 and activate Ypk1 in C. albicans. These findings provide novel insights into this conserved signaling pathway and how it is rewired in a human-pathogenic fungus.
Protein kinases play central roles in virtually all signaling pathways that enable organisms to adapt to their environment. Microbial pathogens must cope with severely restricted iron availability in mammalian hosts to invade and establish themselves within infected tissues. To uncover protein kinase signaling pathways that are involved in the adaptation of the pathogenic yeast Candida albicans to iron limitation, we generated a comprehensive protein kinase deletion mutant library of a wild-type strain. Screening of this library revealed that the protein kinase Ire1, which has a conserved role in the response of eukaryotic cells to endoplasmic reticulum stress, is essential for growth of C. albicans under iron-limiting conditions. Ire1 was not necessary for the activity of the transcription factor Sef1, which regulates the response of the fungus to iron limitation, and Sef1 target genes that are induced by iron depletion were normally upregulated in ire1Δ mutants. Instead, Ire1 was required for proper localization of the high-affinity iron permease Ftr1 to the cell membrane. Intriguingly, iron limitation did not cause increased endoplasmic reticulum stress, and the transcription factor Hac1, which is activated by Ire1-mediated removal of the non-canonical intron in the HAC1 mRNA, was dispensable for Ftr1 localization to the cell membrane and growth under iron-limiting conditions. Nevertheless, expression of a pre-spliced HAC1 copy in ire1Δ mutants restored Ftr1 localization and rescued the growth defects of the mutants. Both ire1Δ and hac1Δ mutants were avirulent in a mouse model of systemic candidiasis, indicating that an appropriate response to endoplasmic reticulum stress is important for the virulence of C. albicans. However, the specific requirement of Ire1 for the functionality of the high-affinity iron permease Ftr1, a well-established virulence factor, even in the absence of endoplasmic reticulum stress uncovers a novel Hac1-independent essential role of Ire1 in iron acquisition and virulence of C. albicans.
The fungal cell wall is essential for the maintenance of cellular integrity and mediates interactions of the cells with the environment. It is a highly flexible organelle whose composition and organization is modulated in response to changing growth conditions. In the pathogenic yeast Candida albicans, a network of signaling pathways regulates the structure of the cell wall, and mutants with defects in these pathways are hypersensitive to cell wall stress. By harnessing a library of genetically activated forms of all C. albicans zinc cluster transcription factors, we found that a hyperactive Czf1 rescued the hypersensitivity to cell wall stress of different protein kinase deletion mutants. The hyperactive Czf1 induced the expression of many genes with cell wall-related functions and caused visible changes in the cell wall structure. C. albicans czf1Δ mutants were hypersensitive to the antifungal drug caspofungin, which inhibits cell wall biosynthesis. The changes in cell wall architecture caused by hyperactivity or absence of Czf1 resulted in an increased recognition of C. albicans by human neutrophils. Our results show that Czf1, which is known as a regulator of filamentous growth and white-opaque switching, controls the expression of cell wall genes and modulates the architecture of the cell wall.
Candida albicans is ubiquitously present, and colonization in the nose and oral cavity is common. In healthy patients, it usually does not act as a pathogen, but in some cases can cause diseases. The influence of C. albicans as a trigger of T cell activation on the pathogenesis of chronic rhinosinusitis (CRS) is controversial, and its exact role is not clear to date. The aim of the present study was to detect and characterize C. albicans-specific CD4+ and CD8+ T cells in patients with CRS, with and without nasal polyps. Tissue and blood samples were collected from patients suffering from chronic rhinosinusitis with (CRSwNP) and without nasal polyps (CRSsNP), and from healthy controls. A peptide pool derived from C. albicans antigen was added to tissue and blood samples. After 6 days, lymphocytes were analyzed by multicolor flow cytometry. Activation was assessed by the intracellular marker Ki-67, and the cytokine secretion was measured. Tissue CD8+ T cells of CRSsNP patients showed a significantly higher proportion of Ki-67+ cells after activation with C. albicans antigen compared to peripheral blood CD8+ T cells. Cytokine secretion in response to C. albicans antigen was similar for all study groups. In this study, C. albicans-specific CD4+ and CD8+ T cells were detected in peripheral blood and mucosal tissue in all study groups. In patients suffering from CRSsNP, C. albicans-specific CD8+ T cells were relatively enriched in the nasal mucosa, suggesting that they might play a role in the pathogenesis of CRSsNP.
Oligopeptides incorporating \(N3\)-(4-methoxyfumaroyl)-L-2,3-diaminopropanoic acid (FMDP), an inhibitor of glucosamine-6-phosphate synthase, exhibited growth inhibitory activity against \(Candida\) \(albicans\), with minimal inhibitory concentration values in the 0.05–50 μg mL\(^{-1}\) range. Uptake by the peptide permeases was found to be the main factor limiting an anticandidal activity of these compounds. Di- and tripeptide containing FMDP (F2 and F3) were transported by Ptr2p/Ptr22p peptide transporters (PTR) and FMDP-containing hexa-, hepta-, and undecapeptide (F6, F7, and F11) were taken up by the oligopeptide transporters (OPT) oligopeptide permeases, preferably by Opt2p/Opt3p. A phenotypic, apparent resistance of \(C. albicans\) to FMDP-oligopeptides transported by OPT permeases was triggered by the environmental factors, whereas resistance to those taken up by the PTR system had a genetic basis. Anticandidal activity of longer FMDP-oligopeptides was strongly diminished in minimal media containing easily assimilated ammonium sulfate or L-glutamine as the nitrogen source, both known to downregulate expression of the OPT genes. All FMDP-oligopeptides tested were more active at lower pH and this effect was slightly more remarkable for peptides F6, F7, and F11, compared to F2 and F3. Formation of isolated colonies was observed inside the growth inhibitory zones induced by F2 and F3 but not inside those induced by F6, F7, and F11. The vast majority (98%) of those colonies did not originate from truly resistant cells. The true resistance of 2% of isolates was due to the impaired transport of di- and to a lower extent, tripeptides. The resistant cells did not exhibit a lower expression of \(PTR2\), \(PTR22\), or \(OPT1–3\) genes, but mutations in the \(PTR2\) gene resulting in T422H, A320S, D119V, and A320S substitutions in the amino acid sequence of Ptr2p were found.
The protein kinase Snf1, a member of the highly conserved AMP-activated protein kinase family, is a central regulator of metabolic adaptation. In the pathogenic yeast Candida albicans, Snf1 is considered to be essential, as previous attempts by different research groups to generate homozygous snf1 Delta mutants were unsuccessful. We aimed to elucidate why Snf1 is required for viability in C. albicans by generating snf1 Delta null mutants through forced, inducible gene deletion and observing the terminal phenotype before cell death. Unexpectedly, we found that snf1 Delta mutants were viable and could grow, albeit very slowly, on rich media containing the preferred carbon source glucose. Growth was improved when the cells were incubated at 37 degrees C instead of 30 degrees C, and this phenotype enabled us to isolate homozygous snf1 Delta mutants also by conventional, sequential deletion of both SNF1 alleles in a wild-type C. albicans strain. All snf1 Delta mutants could grow slowly on glucose but were unable to utilize alternative carbon sources. Our results show that, under optimal conditions, C. albicans can live and grow without Snf1. Furthermore, they demonstrate that inducible gene deletion is a powerful method for assessing gene essentiality in C. albicans.
IMPORTANCE
Essential genes are those that are indispensable for the viability and growth of an organism. Previous studies indicated that the protein kinase Snf1, a central regulator of metabolic adaptation, is essential in the pathogenic yeast Candida albicans, because no homozygous snf1 deletion mutants of C. albicans wild-type strains could be obtained by standard approaches. In order to investigate the lethal consequences of SNF1 deletion, we generated conditional mutants in which SNF1 could be deleted by forced, inducible excision from the genome. Unexpectedly, we found that snf1 null mutants were viable and could grow slowly under optimal conditions. The growth phenotypes of the snf1 Delta mutants explain why such mutants were not recovered in previous attempts. Our study demonstrates that inducible gene deletion is a powerful method for assessing gene essentiality in C. albicans.
Fungal microorganisms frequently lead to life-threatening infections. Within this group of pathogens, the commensal Candida albicans and the filamentous fungus Aspergillus fumigatus are by far the most important causes of invasive mycoses in Europe. A key capability for host invasion and immune response evasion are specific molecular interactions between the fungal pathogen and its human host. Experimentally validated knowledge about these crucial interactions is rare in literature and even specialized host pathogen databases mainly focus on bacterial and viral interactions whereas information on fungi is still sparse. To establish large-scale host fungi interaction networks on a systems biology scale, we develop an extended inference approach based on protein orthology and data on gene functions. Using human and yeast intraspecies networks as template, we derive a large network of pathogen host interactions (PHI). Rigorous filtering and refinement steps based on cellular localization and pathogenicity information of predicted interactors yield a primary scaffold of fungi human and fungi mouse interaction networks. Specific enrichment of known pathogenicity-relevant genes indicates the biological relevance of the predicted PHI. A detailed inspection of functionally relevant subnetworks reveals novel host fungal interaction candidates such as the Candida virulence factor PLB1 and the anti-fungal host protein APP. Our results demonstrate the applicability of interolog-based prediction methods for host fungi interactions and underline the importance of filtering and refinement steps to attain biologically more relevant interactions. This integrated network framework can serve as a basis for future analyses of high-throughput host fungi transcriptome and proteome data.
Infektionen durch C. albicans auf den Schleimhäuten sind eine häufige Erkrankung bei Patienten mit einer Schwächung der T-Zellimmunität. Blutstrominfektionen mit der Hefe C. albicans (Candidämie) stellen, vor allem bei Patienten auf Intensivstationen, eine nach wie vor bedrohliche Komplikation mit hoher Letalität dar.
Das pH-regulierte Antigen 1 (Pra1) ist ein Protein, das von C. albicans produziert wird, auf der Oberfläche des Pilzes gebunden vorkommt und auch vom Pilz in den Überstand sezerniert wird. Im humanen System bindet das Protein an T-Zellen an das Oberflächenprotein CD46. Es ist des Weiteren bekannt, dass das Pra1 an bestimmte Immunzellen der Maus (Monozyten und Phagozyten) binden kann. Eine Bindung an T-Zellen der Maus ist bisher nicht beschrieben. Eine genaue Charakterisierung der Interaktion von Pra1 mit Immunzellen der Maus ist interessant, da die Maus als biologischer Modellorganismus zur Erforschung der Infektion mit C. albicans dient. In dieser Arbeit konnte gezeigt werden, dass rekombinantes Pra1 (rPra1) auch an Maus-CD4+ T-Zellen binden kann.
Es wurden Einflussfaktoren auf die gefundene Bindung von Pra1 an CD4+ T- Zellen gesucht. Als ein Einflussfaktor wurde Zink identifiziert. Pra1 kann an freies Zink binden und durch Zugabe von ZnCl2 während der Inkubation von Pra1 mit T-Zellen kann das Signal von gebundenem Pra1 an CD4+ T-Zellen erhöht werden. Aspf2, ein Protein aus Aspergillus fumigatus mit großer Homologie zu Pra1, kann nicht an diese Zellen binden.
Im in-vivo-Experiment mit Tieren, die mit C. albicans infiziert wurden, konnte kein wildtypisches sezerniertes Pra1 gebunden an T-Zellen nachgewiesen werden. Zellkulturüberstände von C. albicans zeigten nach Inkubation in vitro mit T-Zellen ein Signal für gebundenes Pra1 an CD4+ T-Zellen.
Die Bindungskinetik von Pra1 an T-Zellen zeigte eine über die Zeit der Inkubation konstante Zunahme des Signals von zellgebundenem rPra1 an CD4+ T-Zellen. In der off-Kinetik fand sich eine Abnahme des Signals über die Zeit bis an die Grenze der Nachweisbarkeit.
Der Bindungspartner von Pra1 auf T-Zellen konnte nicht identifiziert werden. Die strukturell und funktionell verwandten Oberflächenproteine Crry, CD59a und CD55 wurden auf Bindungsfähigkeit an T-Zellen in entsprechenden Knockout- Mäusen getestet, konnten jedoch als Rezeptor für Pra1 ausgeschlossen werden. Durch die Bindung von sezerniertem Pra1 an neutrophile Granulozyten wird die Fähigkeit dieser Zellen zur Phagozytose eingeschränkt. Die Bindung von Pra1 an CD4+ T-Zellen führt zur Kostimulation der T-Zellen, also zur verstärkten Zellaktivierung und Proliferation. Durch die Zugabe von 10 μM Zinkchlorid wird die kostimulatorische Aktivität von Pra1 verstärkt.
Während der Zellaktivierung von Effektor-Memory-CD4+ T-Zellen reduziert rPra1 die Sekretion von IFN-γ. Diese Reduktion von IFN-γ-produzierenden Zellen entsteht nicht durch einen Einfluss von Pra1 während der Zellaktivierung von naiven CD4+ T-Zellen zu Th1-Zellen und auch nicht durch die Auslösung von Apoptose in IFN-γ-produzierenden Th1-Zellen. Die Bindung von Pra1 an CD4+- T-Zellen, die über den T-Zell-Rezeptor aktiviert werden, reduziert in vitro die Sekretion des Zytokins. Zusätzlich werden weitere Zytokine in ihrer sezernierten Menge reduziert wie IL-2 und TNF-α.
Farnesol, produced by the polymorphic fungus Candida albicans, is the first quorum-sensing molecule discovered in eukaryotes. Its main function is control of C. albicans filamentation, a process closely linked to pathogenesis. In this study, we analyzed the effects of farnesol on innate immune cells known to be important for fungal clearance and protective immunity. Farnesol enhanced the expression of activation markers on monocytes (CD86 and HLA-DR) and neutrophils (CD66b and CD11b) and promoted oxidative burst and the release of proinflammatory cytokines (tumor necrosis factor alpha [TNF-\(\alpha\)] and macrophage inflammatory protein 1 alpha [MIP-1 \(\alpha\)]). However, this activation did not result in enhanced fungal uptake or killing. Furthermore, the differentiation of monocytes to immature dendritic cells (iDC) was significantly affected by farnesol. Several markers important for maturation and antigen presentation like CD1a, CD83, CD86, and CD80 were significantly reduced in the presence of farnesol. Furthermore, farnesol modulated migrational behavior and cytokine release and impaired the ability of DC to induce T cell proliferation. Of major importance was the absence of interleukin 12 (IL-12) induction in iDC generated in the presence of farnesol. Transcriptome analyses revealed a farnesol-induced shift in effector molecule expression and a down-regulation of the granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) receptor during monocytes to iDC differentiation. Taken together, our data unveil the ability of farnesol to act as a virulence factor of C. albicans by influencing innate immune cells to promote inflammation and mitigating the Th1 response, which is essential for fungal clearance.