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In computer-supported learning environments, the deployment of self-regulatory skills represents an essential prerequisite for successful learning. Metacognitive prompts are a promising type of instructional support to activate students’ strategic learning activities. However, despite positive effects in previous studies, there are still a large number of students who do not benefit from provided support. Therefore, it may be necessary to consider explicitly the conditions under which a prompt is beneficial for a student, i.e., so-called adaptive scaffolding. The current study aims to (i) classify the effectiveness of prompts on regulatory behavior, (ii) investigate the correspondence of the classification with learning outcome, and (iii) discover the conditions under which prompts induce regulatory activities (i.e., the proper temporal positioning of prompts). The think-aloud data of an experiment in which metacognitive prompts supported the experimental group (n = 35) was used to distinguish between effective and non-effective prompts. Students’ activities preceding the prompt presentation were analyzed using data mining and process mining techniques. The results indicate that approximately half of the presented prompts induced metacognitive learning activities as expected. Moreover, the number of induced monitoring activities correlates positively with transfer performance. Finally, the occurrence of orientation and monitoring activities, which are not well-embedded in the course of learning, increases the effectiveness of a presented prompt. In general, our findings demonstrate the benefits of investigating metacognitive support using process data, which can provide implications for the design of effective instructional support.
The current dissertation addresses the analysis of technology-enhanced learning processes by using Process Mining techniques. For this purpose, students’ coded think-aloud data served as the measurement of the learning process, in order to assess the potential of this analysis method for evaluating the impact of instructional support.
The increasing use of digital media in higher education and further educational sectors enables new potentials. However, it also poses new challenges to students, especially regarding the self-regulation of their learning process. To help students with optimally making progress towards their learning goals, instructional support is provided during learning. Besides the use of questionnaires and tests for the assessment of learning, researchers make use increasingly of process data to evaluate the effects of provided support. The analysis of observed behavioral traces while learning (e.g., log files, eye movements, verbal reports) allows detailed insights into the student’s activities as well as the impact of interventions on the learning process. However, new analytical challenges emerge, especially when going beyond the analysis of pure frequencies of observed events. For example, the question how to deal with temporal dynamics and sequences of learning activities arises. Against this background, the current dissertation concentrates on the application of Process Mining techniques for the detailed analysis of learning processes. In particular, the focus is on the additional value of this approach in comparison to a frequency-based analysis, and therefore on the potential of Process Mining for the evaluation of instructional support.
An extensive laboratory study with 70 university students, which was conducted to investigate the impact of a support measure, served as the basis for pursuing the research agenda of this dissertation. Metacognitive prompts supported students in the experimental group (n = 35) during a 40-minute hypermedia learning session; whereas the control group (n = 35) received no support. Approximately three weeks later, all students participated in another learning session; however, this time all students learned without any help. The participants were instructed to verbalize their learning activities concurrently while learning. In the three analyses of this dissertation, the coded think aloud data were examined in detail by using frequency-based methods as well as Process Mining techniques.
The first analysis addressed the comparison of the learning activities between the experimental and control groups during the first learning session. This study concentrated on the research questions whether metacognitive prompting increases the number of metacognitive learning activities, whether a higher number of these learning activities corresponds with learning outcome (mediation), and which differences regarding the sequential structure of learning activities can be revealed. The second analysis investigated the impact of the individual prompts as well as the conditions of their effectiveness on the micro level. In addition to Process Mining, we used a data mining approach to compare the findings of both analysis methods. More specifically, we classified the prompts by their effectiveness, and we examined the learning activities preceding and following the presentation of instructional support. Finally, the third analysis considered the long-term effects of metacognitive prompting on the learning process during another learning session without support. It was the key objective of this study to examine which fostered learning activities and process patterns remained stable during the second learning session.
Overall, all three analyses indicated the additional value of Process Mining in comparison to a frequency-based analysis. Especially when conceptualizing the learning process as a dynamic sequence of multiple activities, Process Mining allows identifying regulatory loops and crucial routing points of the process. These findings might contribute to optimizing intervention strategies. However, before drawing conclusions for the design of instructional support based on the revealed process patterns, additional analyses need to investigate the generalizability of results. Moreover, the application of Process Mining remains challenging because guidelines for analytical decisions and parameter settings in technology-enhanced learning context are currently missing. Therefore, future studies need to examine further the potential of Process Mining as well as related analysis methods to provide researchers with concrete recommendations for use. Nevertheless, the application of Process Mining techniques can already contribute to advance the understanding of the impact of instructional support through the use of fine-grained process data.
Affective states in the context of learning and achievement can influence the learning process essentially. The impact of affective states can be both directly on the learning performance and indirectly mediated via, for example, motivational processes. Positive activating affect is often associated with increased memory skills as well as advantages in creative problem solving. Negative activating affect on the other hand is regarded to impair learning outcomes because of promoting task-irrelevant thinking. While these relationships were found to be relatively stable in correlation studies, causal relationships have been examined rarely so far. This dissertation aims to investigate the effects of positive and negative affective states in multimedia learning settings and to identify potential moderating factors. Therefore, three experimental empirical studies on university students were conducted. In Experiment 1, N = 57 university students were randomly allocated to either a positive or negative affect induction group. Affects were elicited using short film clips. After a 20-minute learning phase in a hypertext-based multimedia learning environment on “functional neuroanatomy” the learners’ knowledge as well as transfer performance were measured. It was assumed that inducing positive activating affect should enhance learning performance. Eliciting negative activating affect on the other hand should impair learning performance. However, it was found that the induction of negative activating affect prior to the learning phase resulted in slight deteriorations in knowledge. Contrary to the assumptions, inducing positive activating affect before the learning phase did not improve learning performance. Experiment 2 induced positive activating affect directly during learning. To induce affective states during the entire duration of the learning phase, Experiment 2 used an emotional design paradigm. Therefore, N = 111 university students were randomly assigned to learn either in an affect inducing multimedia learning environment (use of warm colours and round shapes) or an affectively neutral counterpart (using shades of grey and angular shapes) on the same topic as in Experiment 1. Again, knowledge as well as transfer performance were measured after learning for 20 minutes. In addition, positive and negative affective states were measured before and after learning. Complex interaction patterns between the treatment and initial affective states were found. Specifically, learners with high levels of positive affect before learning showed better transfer performance when they learned in the affect inducing learning environment. Regarding knowledge, those participants who reported high levels of negative activating affect prior to the learning period performed worse. However, the effect on knowledge did not occur for those students learning in the affect inducing learning environment. For knowledge, the treatment therefore protected against poorer performance due to high levels of negative affective states. Results of Experiment 2 showed that the induction of positive activating affect influenced learning performance positively when taking into account affective states prior to the learning phase. In order to confirm these interaction effects, a conceptual replication of the previous experiment was conducted in Experiment 3. Experiment 3 largely retained the former study design, but changed the learning materials and tests used. Analogous to Experiment 2, N = 145 university students learning for 20 minutes in either an affect inducing or an affectively neutral multimedia learning environment on “eukaryotic cell”. To strengthen the treatment, Experiment 3 also used anthropomorphic design elements to induce affective states next to warm colours and round shapes. Moreover, in order to assess the change in affective states more exactly, an additional measurement of positive and negative affective states after half of the learning time was inserted. Knowledge and transfer were assessed again to measure learning performance. The learners’ memory skills were used as an additional learning outcome. To control the influence of potential confounding variables, the participants’ general and current achievement motivation as well as interest, and emotion regulation skills were measured. Contrary to the assumptions, Experiment 3 could not confirm the interaction effects of Experiment 2. Instead, there was a significant impact of positive activating affect prior to the learning phase on transfer, irrespective of the learners’ group affiliation. This effect was further independent of the control variables that were measured. Nevertheless, the results of Experiment 3 fit into the picture of findings regarding “emotional design” in hypermedia learning settings. To date, the few publications that have used this approach propose heterogeneous results, even when using identical materials and procedures.
Im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden vier Experimente zur Eignung von Marginalien als Lernhilfen im Hypertext durchgeführt. Die grundlegende Annahme lautet dabei, dass Marginalien als Kommentar zum Text aufgefasst werden und somit im Vergleich zu intratextuellen Lernhilfen wie Überschriften oder absatzeinleitenden Makropropositionen zu einer interaktiven und tieferen Verarbeitung der Lerninhalte führen. Als Lernmedium wurden eine hierarchische Hypertextumgebung zum Thema Fragebogenkonstruktion und eine netzförmige Hypertextumgebung zur Bedeutung des Buchdrucks in der Medientheorie eingesetzt.
Experiment 1 (N= 41) verglich mittels between-Design die Lernleistung bei Marginalien mit einer Präsentation derselben Makropropositionen als absatzeinleitende Topic-Sätze und einer Platzierung der Makropropositionen am Absatzende. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass absatzweise Marginalien im Vergleich zu absatzeinleitenden Makropropositionen und der Kontrollgruppe zu einem besseren Abschneiden bei geschlossenen Inferenzfragen führen. Hinsichtlich geschlossener Fragen zur Textbasis konnten jedoch die absatzeinleitenden Makropropositionen im Vergleich mit den beiden anderen Bedingungen die besten Ergebnisse erzielen.
Experiment 2 (N= 105) verglich den Einfluss von Marginalien mit Überschriften und einer Kontrollgruppe ohne absatzweise Explikation der Makrostruktur auf das Schreiben einer Zusammenfassung des Lerntextes. Zusätzlich wurden erneut geschlossene Inferenzfragen präsentiert. Ergänzend wurde das Rezeptionsverhalten mittels Blickbewegungsmessung ermittelt. Dabei zeigten sich signifikante Unterschiede zwischen Überschriften und Marginalien. Marginalien wurden in der hierarchischen Hypertextumgebung allgemein seltener gelesen als Überschriften und zeigten auch hinsichtlich der Anzahl der strategischen Rezeptionen und der absatzeinleitenden Rezeption geringere Werte. Einzig nach der Rezeption des zugehörigen Absatzes wurden Marginalien häufiger konsultiert als Überschriften. Diese Unterschiede gingen einher mit signifikanten Einbußen der Lernleistung der Marginalienbedingung im Vergleich zur Überschriftenbedingung. So erinnerten Lerner mit Marginalien weniger explizite Makropropositionen des Lerntextes, weniger Fakteninformationen, sowie weniger Inhalte verschiedener Hypertextknoten und bildeten außerdem weniger eigene Makropropositionen. Hinsichtlich der letzten beiden Variablen war die Marginalienbedingung sogar der Kontrollbedingung unterlegen.
Experiment 3 (N = 54) verwendete im Gegensatz zu den Experimenten 1 und 2 einen netzförmig organisierten Hypertext mit embedded Links anstelle eines Navigationsmenüs. Die untersuchten Versuchsbedingungen sowie die Messung der Lernleistung waren jedoch analog zu Experiment 1. Auch hier konnte ein Effekt von Marginalien auf die Inferenzleistung nachgewiesen werden. Allerdings schnitten Marginalien nur besser als die absatzeinleitenden Makropropositionen ab, wohin-gegen kein Unterschied zur Kontrollbedingung festgestellt werden konnten. Hinsichtlich der Leistung bei geschlossenen Faktenfragen konnte die Überlegenheit absatzeinleitender Makropropositionen gegenüber den anderen beiden Präsentationsformen der Makrostruktur erneut bestätigt werden.
Experiment 4 (N= 75) verglich analog zu Experiment 2 unter Verwendung der netzförmigen Lernumgebung aus Experiment 3 erneut den Einfluss von Marginalien, Überschriften und einer Kontrollbedingung ohne explizite absatzweise Makropropositionen auf das Schreiben einer Zusammenfassung sowie die Beantwortung geschlossener Inferenzfragen. Auch die Blickbewegungsmessung kam wieder zum Einsatz. Die Ergebnisse von Experiment 2 konnten jedoch nicht bestätigt werden. Es fanden sich keine signifikanten Unterschiede hinsichtlich der Lernleistung zwischen den drei Versuchsbedingungen und auch hinsichtlich des Rezeptionsverhaltens konnte eine Angleichung von Marginalien und Überschriften festgestellt werden. Hinsichtlich der Lernleistung wird angenommen, dass die embedded Links in Kombination mit der Instruktion, eine Zusammenfassung zu schreiben mit den Überschriften und den Marginalien, die jedoch im Vergleich zu Experiment 2 fast vollständig wie Überschriften genutzt wurden, interferiert haben und somit eine Hemmung dieser Lernhilfen stattgefunden hat.
Anhand der vier durchgeführten Experimente wird gefolgert, dass Marginalien als Explikation der lokalen Makrostruktur sowohl bei hierarchisch strukturiertem Hypertext als auch bei netzförmig organisiertem Hypertext unter der Instruktion eines verstehenden Lernens eine Verbesserung der Inferenzleistung bewirken können. Lautet die Instruktion jedoch, eine Zusammenfassung der In-halte zu schreiben, sind Marginalien speziell bei hierarchisch strukturiertem Hypertext wenig geeignet, die Lernleistung zu fördern.
T-pattern analysis supports studies of various aspects of human or animal behavior as well as interaction between human subjects and animal or artificial agents. The following proceedings give an overiew on the application of T-pattern analysis in different research fields like media, gaming, human behaviour, social and organisational interaction as well as sports and health.
Background
Precise and complete documentation of in-hospital cardiopulmonary resuscitations is important but data quality can be poor. In the present study, we investigated the effect of a tablet-based application for real-time resuscitation documentation used by the emergency team leader on documentation quality and clinical performance of the emergency team.
Methods
Senior anaesthesiologists either used the tablet-based application during the simulated resuscitation for documentation and also used the application for the final documentation or conducted the full documentation at the end of the scenario using the local hospital information system. The latter procedure represents the current local documentation method. All scenarios were video recorded. To assess the documentation, we compared the precision of intervention delivery times, documentation completeness, and final documentation time. To assess clinical performance, we compared adherence to guidelines for defibrillation and adrenaline administration, the no-flow fraction, and the time to first defibrillation.
Results
The results showed significant benefits for the tablet-based application compared to the hospital information system for precision of the intervention delivery times, the final documentation time, and the no-flow fraction. We observed no differences between the groups for documentation completeness, adherence to guidelines for defibrillation and adrenaline administration, and the time to first defibrillation.
Discussion
In the presented study, we observed that a tablet-based application can improve documentation data quality. Furthermore, we demonstrated that a well-designed application can be used in real-time by a member of the emergency team with possible beneficial effects on clinical performance.
Conclusion
The present evaluation confirms the advantage of tablet-based documentation tools and also shows that the application can be used by an active member of an emergency team without compromising clinical performance.
Costly signaling with mobile devices: An evolutionary psychological perspective on smartphones
(2016)
In the last decade, mobile device ownership has largely increased. In particular, smartphone ownership is constantly rising (A. Smith, 2015; Statista, 2016a), and there is a real hype for luxury brand smartphones (Griffin, 2015). These observations raise the question of which functions smartphones serve in addition to their original purposes of making and receiving calls, searching for information, and organizing. Beyond these obvious functions, studies suggest that smartphones express fashion, lifestyle, and one’s economic status (e.g., Bødker et al., 2009; Statista, 2016b; Vanden Abeele, Antheunis, & Schouten, 2014). Specifically, individuals seem to purchase and use conspicuous luxury brand smartphones to display and enhance status (D. Kim et al., 2014; Müller-Lietzkow et al., 2014; Suki, 2013). But how does owning a conspicuous, high-status smartphone contribute to status, and which benefits may these status boosts provide to their owners? From an evolutionary perspective, status carries a lot of advantages, particularly for males; high status grants them priority access to resources and correlates with their mating success (van Vugt & Tybur, 2016). In this sense, research suggests that men conspicuously display their cell phones to attract mates and to distinguish themselves from rivals (Lycett & Dunbar, 2000). In a similar vein, evolutionarily informed studies on conspicuous consumption indicate that the purchase and display of conspicuous luxuries (including mobile phones and smartphones) relate to a man’s interest in uncommitted sexual relationships and enhance his desirability as a short-term mate (Hennighausen & Schwab, 2014; Saad, 2013; Sundie et al., 2011). Drawing on these findings, this doctoral dissertation investigated how a man is perceived given that he is an owner of a high-status (vs. nonconspicuous, low-status) smartphone as a romantic partner and male rival. This was done in three experiments. In addition, it was examined how male conspicuous consumption of smartphones interacted with further traits that signal a man’s mate quality, namely facial attractiveness (Studies 1 and 2) and social dominance (Study 3). Study 1 revealed that men and women perceived a male owner of a conspicuous smartphone as a less desirable long-term mate and as more inclined toward short-term mating. Study 2 replicated these results and showed that men and women assigned traits that are associated with short-term mating (e.g., low loyalty, interest in flirts, availability of tangible resources) to a male owner of a conspicuous smartphone and perceived him as a stronger male rival and mate poacher, and less as a friend. The results of Study 2 further suggested that specifically more attractive men might benefit from owning a conspicuous smartphone in a short-term mating context and might be hence considered as stronger male rivals. Study 3 partially replicated the findings of Studies 1 and 2 pertaining to the effects of owning a conspicuous smartphone. Study 3 did not show different effects of conspicuous consumption of smartphones on perceptions of a man dependent on the level of his social dominance.
To conclude, the findings of this doctoral dissertation suggest that owning a conspicuous, high-status smartphone might not only serve proximate functions (e.g., making and receiving calls, organization) but also ultimate functions, which relate to mating and reproduction. The results indicate that owning a conspicuous smartphone might yield benefits for men in a short-term rather than in a long-term mating context. Furthermore, more attractive men appear to benefit more from owning a conspicuous smartphone than less attractive men. These findings provide further insights into the motivations that underlie men’s purchases and displays of conspicuous, high-status smartphones from luxury brands that reach beyond the proximate causes frequently described in media and consumer psychological research. By applying an evolutionary perspective, this doctoral dissertation demonstrates the power and utility of this research paradigm for media psychological research and shows how combining a proximate and ultimate perspective adds to a more profound understanding of smartphone phenomena.
The proceedings of the 8th Conference of the Media Psychology Division of the German Psychological Society hosted by the University of Wuerzburg from the 4th until the 6th of September 2013 contains the abstracts of the conference participants. Following the motto of the conference "Media Research: Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow" a large number of media-psychological topics was dealt with. Amongst others, participants presented their research on interactive learning, emotions, virtual agents and avatars, gaming, scientific communication, politics, motion pictures and entertainment, social media, methods, and persuasions.