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- LIFE12 BIO/AT/000143 (1)
- LIFE20 NAT/AT/000049 (1)
Mapping Bushfire Distribution and Burn Severity in West Africa Using Remote Sensing Observations
(2010)
Fire has long been considered to be the main ecological factor explaining the origin and maintenance of West African savannas. It has a very high occurrence in these savannas due to high human pressure caused by strong demographic growth and, concomitantly, is used to transform natural savannas into farmland and is also used as a provider of energy. This study was carried out with the support of the BIOTA project funded by the German ministry for Research and Education. The objective of this study is to establish the spatial and temporal distribution of bushfires during a long observation period from 2000 to 2009 as well as to assess fire impact on vegetation through mapping of the burn severity; based on remote sensing and field data collections. Remote sensing was used for this study because of the advantages that it offers in collecting data for long time periods and on different scales. In this case, the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) satellite instrument at 1km resolution is used to assess active fires, and understand the seasonality of fire, its occurrence and its frequency within the vegetation types on a regional scale. Landsat ETM+ imagery at 30 m and field data collections were used to define the characteristics of burn severity related to the biomass loss on a local scale. At a regional scale, the occurrence of fires and rainfall per month correlated very well (R2 = 0.951, r = -0.878, P < 0.01), which shows that the lower the amount of rainfall, the higher the fire occurrence and vice versa. In the dry season, four fire seasons were determined on a regional scale, namely very early fires, which announce the beginning of the fires, early and late fires making up the peak of fire in December/January and very late fires showing the end of the fire season and the beginning of the rainy season. Considerable fire activity was shown to take place in the vegetation zones between the Forest and the Sahel areas. Within these zones, parts of the Sudano-Guinean and the Guinean zones showed a high pixel frequency, i.e. fires occurred in the same place in many years. This high pixel frequency was also found in most protected areas in these zones. As to the kinds of land cover affected by fire, the highest fire occurrence is observed within the Deciduous woodlands and Deciduous shrublands. Concerning the burn severity, which was observed at a local scale, field data correlated closely with the ΔNBR derived from Landsat scenes of Pendjari National Park (R2 = 0.76). The correlation coefficient according to Pearson is r = 0.84 and according to Spearman-Rho, the correlation coefficient is r = 0.86. Very low and low burn severity (with ΔNBR value from 0 to 0.40) affected the vegetation weakly (0-35 percent of biomass loss) whereas moderate and high burn severity greatly affected the vegetation, leading to up to 100 percent of biomass loss, with the ΔNBR value ranging from 0.41 to 0.99. It can be seen from these results that remotely sensed images offer a tool to determine the fire distribution over large regions in savannas and that the Normalised Burn Ratio index can be applied to West Africa savannas. The outcomes of this thesis will hopefully contribute to understanding and, eventually, improving fire regimes in West Africa and their response to climate change and changes in vegetation diversity.
This work presents a new method to measure model independent viscosities of inhomogeneous materials at high temperatures. Many mechanisms driving volcanic eruptions are strongly influenced by the viscous properties of the participating materials. Since an eruption takes place at temperatures at which these materials (predominantly silicate melts) are not completely molten, typically inhomogeneities, like e.g. equilibrium and non-equilibrium crystals, are present in the system. In order to incorporate such inhomogeneities into objective material parameters the viscosity measurement is based on a rotational viscometer in a wide gap Couette setup. The gap size between the two concentric cylinders was designed as large as possible in order to account for the inhomogeneities. The emerging difficulties concerning the model independent data reduction from measured values to viscosities are solved using an appropriate interpolation scheme. The method was applied to a material representative for the majority of volcanic eruptions on earth: a typical continental basaltic rock (Billstein/Rhön/Germany). The measured viscosities show a strong shear rate dependency, which surprises, because basaltic melt has been, until now, assumed to behave as a Newtonian fluid. Since a non-Newtonian material shows a very different relaxation behavior in the Couette motion compared to a Newtonian one (which, ultimately, does not show any), and a strong relaxation signal was recorded during viscosity measurements, the equations of Couette motion were investigated. The time dependent stress distribution in a material due to a quasi step-like velocity change at the inner Couette radius (i.e. the spindle) was considered. The results show that a material combining a linear shear modulus and a Newtonian viscosity -- a Maxwell material -- cannot quantify the relaxation behavior. This could be considered as a hint, that the widely used Maxwell relaxation times cannot be applied as a 1:1 mapping from microscopic considerations to macroscopic situations.
In den Themenbereichen Klimawandel, Klimaschutz und Erneuerbare Energien wurden in den letzten Jahren zunehmend neue Bewertungsmethoden in der geowissenschaftlichen und umweltwissenschaftlichen Forschung eingesetzt. Mit Blick auf die Biogasnutzung kann festgestellt werden, dass diese aus Umwelt- und Klimaschutzgründen sehr wichtig ist, da die Vergärung von Biomasse mit der nachfolgenden indirekten Erzeugung von Strom und Wärme über Blockheizkraftwerke, bzw. der direkten Nutzung des Biogases als Feuerungsgas bzw. als Treibstoff , einen besonderen Beitrag zum Klimaschutz leistet. In Deutschland ist die Biogasnutzung heute einer der wichtigsten Erneuerbaren Energieträger geworden. In China hat die Biogasnutzung zudem ein riesiges Entwicklungspotenzial. Der Autor versucht, im interdisziplinären Themenkreis „Umwelt- und Klimaschutz“ ein Bewertungsmodell für die Biogasnutzung zu entwickeln, um die tatsächlichen und potentiellen umwelt- und klimaschutzrelevanten Auswirkungen der Biogasnutzung zu bewerten. Um das Bewertungsmodell für die Biogasnutzung nach Umwelt- und Klimaschutzaspekten möglichst umfassend zu entwickeln, ist die Verzahnung der interdisziplinären umweltwissenschaftlichen, geowissenschaftlichen, rechtlichen, sowie lokal-, national- und internationalen politischen sowie technischen Faktoren mit ihren umweltbezogenen und klimabezogenen Auswirkungen von höchster Bedeutung. Das in der vorliegenden Arbeit entwickelte Bewertungsmodell erhebt den Anspruch, für den praktischen Einsatz vor Ort tauglich zu sein. Hierzu wurden umwelt- und klimaschutzrechtliche, sowie nationale und internationale politische Anforderungen zur Kategorisierung und Bewertung herangezogen und damit die Durchführbarkeit gewährleistet. Der Lösungsweg zur Bewertung nach Umwelt- und Klimaschutzaspekten führt zum Einen über die Umwelt- und Klimaschutzbilanzierung und zum Anderen über eine Umweltrisikobewertung sowie eine umweltbezogene Standortbewertung. Anhand der praktischen Arbeit und der Analyse von insgesamt 23 Biogasprojekten aus Deutschland und China, konnten bestimmte Charakteristika der Biogasnutzung ermittelt werden. Für die Ermittlung der Bewertungskriterien des Bewertungsmodells wurden insgesamt 3 Themenbereiche (Teil I: Substratversorgung; Teil II: Biogasanlagenbau; Teil III: Biogasverwertung) der Biogasnutzung unterschieden. Jene wurden hinsichtlich der technischen, rechtlichen und politischen Kriterien nach negativen Umwelt- und Klimaschutzauswirkungen über die verschiedenen Belastungspfade der Umweltmedien (Boden, Wasser und Luft) untersucht. Ziel dieser Studie war es auch, durch die Anwendung des Bewertungsmodells auf je drei deutsche und chinesische Fallbeispiele, die ausgereiften deutschen Erfahrungen, die deutsche Technologie und das Know-How der Biogasnutzung auf deren Übertragbarkeit auf die chinesischen Verhältnisse zu prüfen.
In der vorliegenden Arbeit werden die Foraminiferenfaunen von 125 Proben, die aus drei Profilen des marinen Mitteljura (Bajocium bis Unteroxfordium) von Kachchh, West-Indien stammen, analysiert: Das Badi Nala-Jhura Village-Profil (ca. 550 m Mächtigkeit) und das Kamaguna-Profil (ca. 365 m Mächtigkeit) wurden am Jhura Hill (23°26’8’’ N; 69°37’00’’ E) ca. 17 km NW von Bhuj aufgenommen, während das dritte Profil durch den Jumara Dome (ca. 365 m Mächtigkeit) (23°40’40’’ N; 69°04’00’’ E) ca. 50 km NW des Jhura Hill liegt. Die Proben wurden lithologisch sowie nach ihren Foraminiferen-Vergesellschaftungen ausgewertet, welche wichtige Daten zur Palökologie lieferten. Die Profile umfassen die mitteljurassische Sedimentabfolge, die der Jhurio-, Patcham- und Chari-Formation des Jhura Dome und Jumara Dome angehört. Die Schichtenfolge des Bajocium und Bathonium besteht aus Karbonaten und gemischt karbonatisch-siliziklastischen Sedimenten der Jhurio- und Patcham-Formation, während im Callovium die Chari-Formation siliziklastisch dominiert ist. Die sedimentäre Abfolge des Kachchh-Beckens zeigt an der Bathonium-Callovium-Grenze signifikante Veränderungen in der Lithologie, im faunistischen Inhalt und in der Faunendiversität. Die lithologischen Veränderungen von einer Karbonat-dominierten Abfolge im mittleren und oberen Bathonium zu siliziklastischen Sedimenten im Callovium gehen mit einer Abnahme der zuvor hohen Diversität einher. Der Grund für den Faunenumschwung liegt vermutlich in einer deutlichen Änderung der Umweltbedingungen von sauerstoffreich im unteren zu sauerstoffarm im oberen Profilabschnitt, was sich in einem Wechsel von einer Kalkschaler- zu einer Sandschaler-dominierten Foraminiferenfauna dokumentiert. Eine weitere Ursache für den Fazies- und Faunenumschwung liegt in einer deutlichen KlimaÄnderung, indem heiße, aride Bedingungen im Bathonium von kühleren, feuchteren Verhältnissen zu Beginn des Callovium abgelöst wurden. Taxonomisch konnten insgesamt 111 Foraminiferentaxa identifiziert werden, die 43 Gattungen angehören. Insgesamt wurden 24 Sandschaler- und 85 benthische Kalkschaler-Taxa sowie 2 Arten planktischer Foraminiferen (Globuligerina) in den untersuchten Profilen bestimmt. Die benthischen Formen dominieren somit bei weitem an Diversität und Häufigkeit, da die planktischen Protoglobigerinen im mittleren Jura global noch keine große Rolle spielten. Aufgrund der spärlich vorhandenen Literatur wurde jedes Taxon inklusive Synonymieliste beschrieben, durch rasterelektronen-mikroskopische Aufnahmen (REM) dokumentiert und auf 9 Tafeln illustriert. In der Foraminiferen-Gesamtfauna dominieren Vertreter der Familie Nodosariidae mit den Gattungen Lenticulina, Astacolus, Citharina, Lingulina, Marginulinopsis, Nodosaria und Vaginulina. Mit der zweitgrößten Häufigkeit folgen die Familien Epistominidae, Textulariidae und Spirillinidae mit den Gattungen Epistomina, Spirillina sowie Reophax, Ammobaculites und Textularia. Die Arten Reophax sterkii, Triplasia althoffi, Verneuilinoides subvitreus, Nubeculinella bigoti, Dentalina filiformis, Saracenaria oxfordiana, Lingulina longiscata, Citharina flabellata, Palmula deslongchampsi, Vaginulina proxima, Ammodiscus asper, Ammodiscus siliceus, Triplasia bartensteini, Spirillina orbicula, Ophthalmidium carinatum, Tubinella inornata, Nodosaria fusiformis, Pyramidulina rara und Ramulina ascissa wurden erstmals in Gesteinen des Kachchh-Beckens nachgewiesen. Die dominierenden Taxa in den untersuchten Sedimenten sind epifaunale Formen, die einen hohen Sauerstoffgehalt im Bodenwasser benötigen. Infaunale, im Sediment lebende Arten treten dagegen etwas seltener auf. Diese lebten bevorzugt in sub- bis dysoxischen Milieus mit geringen Gehalten an gelöstem Sauerstoff im Bodenwasser und konnten auch Sauerstoffminima tolerieren. Aus der benthischen Foraminiferenfauna können folgende Rückschlüsse gezogen werden: • Die wichtigsten Parameter für die Verbreitung der Foraminiferen sind Substrat, Energieniveau und Sauerstoffgehalt. • Die höchste Diversität weisen die epifaunalen Vergesellschaftungen auf. • Mit zunehmender Sedimenttiefe nehmen Häufigkeit und Diversität ab. • Die Diversität der Kalkschaler ist höher als die der Sandschaler. • Minimale Diversitäten liegen in Stressmilieus mit geringen Sauerstoffgehalten vor. • Die hohen Werte des Evenness-Index weisen auf eine annähernd gleichmäßige Verteilung der benthischen Foraminiferen in den Profilen hin. • Epifaunale Arten werden von den physikochemischen Eigenschaften des Bodenwassers gesteuert. Sie sind auf partikuläres organisches Material und hohe Sauerstoffgehalte des Bodenwassers angewiesen. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden Probencluster gebildet, um Faunenassoziationen zu erfassen und danach die Umwelt- und Ablagerungsbedingungen zu rekonstruieren. Aus drei Profilen wurden 125 Proben für eine quantitative palökologische Analyse der Foraminiferen ausgewählt. Die W-mode Clusteranalyse zeigt eine große Ähnlichkeit zwischen den Proben, die sich in zwei Hauptcluster mit insgesamt sechs Subclustern gruppieren lassen. Die dadurch gebildeten Probengruppen stellen verschiedene Foraminiferenassoziationen dar, die sich beschreiben und weitgehend interpretieren lassen. • Assoziation A zeichnet sich durch hohe Anteile der Gattung Epistomina mosquensis aus. Diese Assoziation repräsentiert vollmarine Ablagerungsbedingungen mit normalmariner Salinität und guter Durchlüftung des Bodenwassers. • Assoziation B wird durchweg von Reophax metensis dominiert. Die Assoziation charakterisiert einen niedrig-energischen und teilweise sauerstoffarmen Sedimentationsraum. • Assoziation C wird stark von Dorothia prekummi dominiert und kennzeichnet vollmarine Bedingungen. • Assoziation D ist von Lenticulina subalata beherrscht und charakterisiert gutdurchlüftete Flachwasserbereiche. • Assoziation E wird von Spirillina polygyrata dominiert. Sie ist typisch für einen flachen Subtidalbereich unterhalb der Wellenbasis mit vollmarinen Bedingungen, normal mariner Salinität und gut durchlüftetem Bodenwasser. • Assoziation F zeichnet sich durch hohe Gehalte an Lenticulina quenstedti aus. Die Assoziation charakterisiert Bereiche, die überwiegend unterhalb der Schönwetter-Wellenbasis liegen und ein niedriges bis mittleres Sauerstoff-Niveau aufweisen. Aus einem Vergleich zwischen den Gehäusegrößen und der Häufigkeit von Lenticulina subalata und Epistomina mosquensis in den karbonatischen und siliziklastischen Sedimenten ergab sich, dass die Gehäuse von L. subalata und E. mosquensis in den Karbonaten größer sind als in den Siliziklastika. Die mitteljurassischen Ablagerungsräume des Kachchh-Beckens werden anhand der lithologischen und faunistischen Parameter rekonstruiert. Ferner werden die Foraminiferen-Vergesellschaftungen mit den von FÜRSICH et al. (2004) beschriebenen Makrofauna-Assoziationen verglichen. Aus diesen Untersuchungen ergaben sich folgende Schlussfolgerungen: • Die Ablagerungen im Jhura-Profil sind in flacherem Wasser sedimentiert worden als im Kamaguna-Profil und Jumara-Profil. • Die Mikro- und Makrofauna in diesen Profilen führt zu mehr oder weniger identischen palökologischen Schlussfolgerungen.
The urban micro climate has been increasingly recognised as an important aspect for urban planning. Therefore, urban planners need reliable information on the micro climatic characteristics of the urban environment. A suitable spatial scale and large spatial coverage are important requirements for such information. This thesis presents a conceptual framework for the use of airborne hyperspectral data to support urban micro climate characterisation, taking into account the information needs of urban planning. The potential of hyperspectral remote sensing in characterising the micro climate is demonstrated and evaluated by applying HyMap airborne hyperspectral and height data to a case study of the German city of Munich. The developed conceptual framework consists of three parts. The first is concerned with the capabilities of airborne hyperspectral remote sensing to map physical urban characteristics. The high spatial resolution of the sensor allows to separate the relatively small urban objects. The high spectral resolution enables the identification of the large range of surface materials that are used in an urban area at up to sub-pixel level. The surface materials are representative for the urban objects of which the urban landscape is composed. These spatial urban characteristics strongly influence the urban micro climate. The second part of the conceptual framework provides an approach to use the hyperspectral surface information for the characterisation of the urban micro climate. This can be achieved by integrating the remote sensing material map into a micro climate model. Also spatial indicators were found to provide useful information on the micro climate for urban planners. They are commonly used in urban planning to describe building blocks and are related to several micro climatic parameters such as temperature and humidity. The third part of the conceptual framework addresses the combination and presentation of the derived indicators and simulation results under consideration of the planning requirements. Building blocks and urban structural types were found to be an adequate means to group and present the derived information for micro climate related questions to urban planners. The conceptual framework was successfully applied to a case study in Munich. Airborne hyperspectral HyMap data has been used to derive a material map at sub-pixel level by multiple endmember linear spectral unmixing. This technique was developed by the German Research Centre for Geosciences (GFZ) for applications in Dresden and Potsdam. A priori information on building locations was used to support the separation between spectrally similar materials used both on building roofs and non-built surfaces. In addition, surface albedo and leaf area index are derived from the HyMap data. The sub-pixel material map supported by object height data is then used to derive spatial indicators, such as imperviousness or building density. To provide a more detailed micro climate characterisation at building block level, the surface materials, albedo, leaf area index (LAI) and object height are used as input for simulations with the micro climate model ENVI-met. Concluding, this thesis demonstrated the potential of hyperspectral remote sensing to support urban micro climate characterisation. A detailed mapping of surface materials at sub-pixel level could be performed. This provides valuable, detailed information on a large range of spatial characteristics relevant to the assessment of the urban micro climate. The developed conceptual framework has been proven to be applicable to the case study, providing a means to characterise the urban micro climate. The remote sensing products and subsequent micro climatic information are presented at a suitable spatial scale and in understandable maps and graphics. The use of well-known spatial indicators and the framework of urban structural types can simplify the communication with urban planners on the findings on the micro climate. Further research is needed primarily on the sensitivity of the micro climate model towards the remote sensing based input parameters and on the general relation between climate parameters and spatial indicators by comparison with other cities.
This study presents new petrological results obtained from high-grade metamorphic rocks of the Beit Bridge, Mahalapye and Phikwe Complexes, which constitute the Central Zone of the Limpopo Belt in southern Africa. These results provide detailed information about the prograde and retrograde pressure-temperature (P-T) evolution of the three investigated complexes and, in concert with geochronological data, form the basis for the development of a coherent geodynamic model for the evolution of the Limpopo’s Central Zone. The P-T paths were inferred by the thorough investigation of silica-saturated and silica- undersaturated metapelitic and metabasic rocks, comprising six sillimanite-garnet-cordierite gneisses, four (garnet)-biotite-plagioclase gneisses, two garnet-orthopyroxene-biotite-Kfeldspar-plagioclase gneisses, one garnet- cordierite-orthoamphibole fels, one garnet-biotite amphibolite, and one garnet-clinopyroxene amphibolite. P-T points and P-T evolutions were derived by the application of conventional geothermobarometers, and quantitative phase diagrams in the systems Na2O - CaO - K2O - FeO - MgO - Al2O3 - SiO2 - H2O - TiO2 - O (NCKFMASHTiO), and MnO - TiO2 - Na2O - CaO - K2O - FeO - MgO - Al2O3 - SiO2 - H2O (MnTiNCKFMASH) - using the computer software THERMOCALC and THERIAK-DOMINO. The petrological information, in particular those obtained by comparison between observed and thermodynamically calculated mineral assemblages, zonations and modes, in combination with new and existing geochronological data provide evidence that rocks from the three investigated complexes underwent slightly different P-T evolutions at different times. The samples from the Bulai Pluton area (Beit Bridge Complex) provide evidence for a Neoarchean high-grade metamorphic event at ~2.64 Ga (M2), with peak P-T conditions of ~850°C at 8-9 kbar, and a decompression-cooling path to ~750°C at 5-6 kbar. This metamorphic evolution perhaps took place in a magmatic arc setting. In contrast, samples from the Mahalapye and Phikwe Complex document a Palaeoproterozoic event at ~2.03-2.05 Ga (M3), and were subject to different styles of prograde metamorphism. Metamorphic rocks from the Mahalapye Complex experienced a high-temperature low-pressure (HT-LP) metamorphic overprint, accompanied by the emplacement of voluminous granite bodies between 2.06 and 2.02 Ga, and provide evidence for a slightly prograde decompression from ~650°C/7 kbar to ~800°C/5.5 kbar. In contrast, the metamorphic rocks from the Phikwe Complex provide evidence for a simultaneous pressure and temperature increase from ~600°C/6 kbar to ~750°C/8 kbar, in the absence of significant Palaeoproterozoic magmatism. The HT-LP metamorphic evolution of the Mahalapye Complex is interpreted to be initiated by the underplating of hot mafic melts, either formed in response to SE-subduction during the Kheis-Magondi orogeny, and/or by contemporaneous mantle plume activities related to the formation of the Bushveld Complex. In contrast, the prograde pressure and temperature increase reflected by the rocks from the Phikwe Complex rather reflects successive crustal stacking at ~2.03 Ga. This stacking, which is also reported from many other units throughout the Limpopo Belt, is interpreted to result from the final convergence between the Kaapvaal and Zimbabwe Cratons, perhaps caused by SE-directed compression in response to the Kheis-Magondi orogeny between ~2.06 and 1.90 Ga.
Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war es, anhand von aktuellen Hochwasserschadensdaten aus Telefonbefragungen in Privathaushalten in Deutschland und Österreich die Minderung von Hochwasserschäden durch Frühwarnung und privater Eigenvorsorge zu quantifizieren. Im ersten Schritt wurden die Datensätze aus den vier zugrunde liegenden Befragungen zu den Hochwasserereignissen der Jahre 2002, 2005 und 2006 zusammengeführt und die Hochwasserschäden auf das Referenzjahr 2007 angepasst. Um das Schadensminderungspotenzial von Frühwarnung und diversen Vorsorge-/ Notmaßnahmen beurteilen zu können, wurde der konsistente Datensatz nach verschiedenen schadensbestimmenden Faktoren (Wasserstand, Hochwassertyp, Kontaminationsart und Hochwassererfahrung) aufgeteilt. Dabei stellte sich heraus, dass eine Hochwasserwarnung z.B. durch Behörden den Schaden am Gebäude und Hausrat nur dann reduzieren kann, wenn der Frühwarnungsinhalt klar verständlich oder das Wissen der Betroffenen ausreichend ist, wie man sich und seinen Haushalt vor dem Hochwasser schützen kann (durch das Ergreifen von Notmaßnahmen). Der Nutzen einer langfristigen Vorsorge, insbesondere von baulichen Maßnahmen, wurde in dieser Studie sehr deutlich. Vor allem die geringwertige Nutzung der hochwassergefährdeten Stockwerke und die hochwasserangepasste Inneneinrichtung konnten die Schäden am Gebäude und Inventar erheblich reduzieren.
Glacier outlines during the ‘Little Ice Age’ maximum in Jotunheimen were mapped by using remote sensing techniques (vertical aerial photos and satellite imagery), glacier outlines from the 1980s and 2003, a digital terrain model (DTM), geomorphological maps of individual glaciers, and field-GPS measurements. The related inventory data (surface area, minimum and maximum altitude) and several other variables (e.g. slope, range) were calculated automatically by using a geographical information system. The length of the glacier flowline was mapped manually based on the glacier outlines at the maximum of the ‘Little Ice Age’ and the DTM. The glacier data during the maximum of the ‘Little Ice Age’ were compared with the Norwegian glacier inventory of 2003. Based on the glacier inventories during the maximum of the ‘Little Ice Age’, the 1980s and 2003, a simple parameterization after HAEBERLI & HOELZLE (1995) was performed to estimate unmeasured glacier variables, as e.g. surface velocity or mean net mass balance. Input data were composed of surface glacier area, minimum and maximum elevation, and glacier length. The results of the parameterization were compared with the results of previous parameterizations in the European Alps and the Southern Alps of New Zealand (HAEBERLI & HOELZLE 1995; HOELZLE et al. 2007). A relationship between these results of the inventories and of the parameterization and climate and climate changes was made.
The Upper Bajocian-Bathonian Kashafrud Formation is a thick package of siliciclastic sediments that crops out in NE Iran from the southeast, near the Afghanistan border, to north- northwestern areas around the city of Mashhad. The thickness ranges from less than 300 m in a deltaic succession (Kuh-e-Radar) to more than 2500 m in the Maiamay area, but the normal thickness in Ghal-e-Sangi, Kol-e-Malekabad, and Fraizi areas is about 1200-1300 m. It is the fill of an elongated basin, which extended for more than 200 km in NW-SE direction and a width of at least 50 km along the southern margin of the Koppeh Dagh. Prior to this study, little information existed about the sedimentary environments and other characters, especially the geometry of the basin. Exact biostratigraphic data from the top of the Kashafrud Formation were rare. Based on the macrofauna from the lower part of the overlying Chamanbid Formation the upper boundary of the Kashafrud Formation had been attributed to the Late Bathonian and/or Early Callovian, but now the upper limit of the Kashafrud Formation is defined as Late Bathonian in age, based on ammonite biostratigraphy. Except for chapter one, which deals with the introduction and related sub-titles, in the following chapters, step by step, field observations and data were surveyed according to the questions to solve. In order to reconstruct the facies architecture and the geometry of the basin, a number of sections have been logged in detail (see chapter 3, “The sections”). The exact biostratigraphic setting is discussed in chapter 4 (“Biostratigraphy”). Sedimentary environments range from non-marine alluvial fans and braided rivers in the basal part of the succession to deltas, storm-dominated shelf, slope and deep-marine basin. The latter comprises the largest part of the basin fill, consisting of monotonous mudstones, siltstones and proximal to distal turbidities. The only continuous carbonate unit (~30 m) locally formed at Tappenader. Other localities in which thin fossil-bearing carbonate strata occur are Torbat-e-Jam (benthic fauna) and, to a lesser extent, Ghal-e-Sangi. These rare shallow-water carbonates, which also contain corals, represent only short intervals (see chapter 5,” Facies association and sedimentary environments”). Relative changes in sea level were reconstructed on the basis of deepening- and shallowing-upward trends. Sequence boundaries and parasequences have been distinguished and analyzed in chapter 6 (“Sequence stratigraphy”). In most areas, the basin rapidly evolved from a shallow marine, transgressive succession to a deep-marine, basinal succession. The only area where shallow conditions persisted from the Late Bajocian to the Late Bathonian, and even into the Early Callovian is the Kuh-e-Radar area which corresponds to a fan-delta setting. A trace fossil analysis has been carried out to obtain additional evidence on the bathymetry of the basin (see chapter 7, “Ichnology”). Altogether 29 ichnospecies belonging to 15 ichnogenera have been identified, as well as 10 ichnogenera, which were determined only at genus level. They can be grouped in the well-known “Seilacherian ichnofacies”. Very high subsidence rates and strong lateral thickness variations suggest that the Kashafrud Formation is a rift related basin that formed as the eastern extension of the South Caspian Basin. The basin evolution is reviewed, the eastern and western continuations of the basin were checked in the field and also in the literature (see chapter 8, “Basin evolution”). In all, the present study provided new insights into the development of the Kashafrud Formation, e.g. more biostratigraphic data from the base and the top of the succession, a relatively complete picture of the trace fossil associations, a better recognition and reconstruction of the sedimentary environments in different parts of the basin. Finally this research project will be a good basis for further investigations, especially towards the west, as parts of the Kashafrud Formation are source rocks of a hydrocarbon reservoir in NE Iran.
Four sections of the Galala and Maghra El Hadida formations on the footwalls of the slopes of the northern and southern Galala plateaus in Wadi Araba (Eastern Desert) have been measured and sampled in great detail. The Galala Formation is ranging in thickness from 55 to 95 meters. It unconformably overlies the Malha Formation which forms the base of the studied sections. The upper boundary of the Galala Formation is characterized by a major unconformity which separates it from the overlying the Maghra El Hadida Formation. The Galala Formation can be subdivided into five shallowing-upward cycles, each cycle starting with deep-lagoonal, marly-silty deposits at the base and grading into highly fossiliferous shallow-lagoonal limestones at the top. Only the basal part of the Galala Formation consists of unfossiliferous, greenish sandy siltstones intercalated with thin cross-bedded, bioturbated, fine- to medium-grained sandstones. Despite the lack of biostratigraphic markers in that lower part, its age can be assigned to the late Middle Cenomanian, since the conformably overlying strata contain the ammonite Neolobites vibrayeanus (D’ORBIGNY), the index marker of the early Upper Cenomanian which extends into the top of the formation. The measured thickness of the overlying Maghra El Hadida Formation is ranging from 59 to 118 meters. This formation starts with the Ghonima Member, introduced in this work to distinguish a brown, fine- to medium-grained calcareous sandstone unit in its lower part. The Ghonima Member is erosionally incised into the Galala Formation, explaining its strong lateral variability in thickness, ranging from 3 to 21 meters. It is mostly unfossiliferous except for irregular bioturbation in its upper part. The Ghonima Member is assigned to the middle Upper Cenomanian, based on its stratigraphic position between the lower Upper Cenomanian Neolobites vibrayeanus Zone and the overlying upper Upper Cenomanian Metoicoceras geslinianum and Vascoceras cauvini zones. This means that the lower part of the Maghra El Hadida Formation, about 20 – 30 m thick, accumulated during the latest Cenomanian and that the base of the formation does not coincide with the base of the Turonian as commonly believed. The overlying succession of the Maghra El Hadida Formation is characterized by an increase of carbonate content, represented by yellow, soft marls intercalated with fine-grained wacke- to packstones containing a highly fossiliferous ammonite assemblage of the upper Upper Cenomanian and Lower Turonian (zones of Vascoceras proprium, Choffaticeras spp., and Wrightoceras munieri). The Middle Turonian part of the Maghra El Hadida Formation consists of poorly fossiliferous, thick-bedded yellowish marls with upward-increasing silt content, showing occasional intercalations of medium- to coarse-grained sandstones with hummocky cross-stratification. The topmost part of the Maghra El Hadida Formation consists of brownish, medium-grained sandstones topped by fossiliferous marly limestones yielding the Upper Turonian zonal ammonite Coilopoceras requienianum (D’ORBIGNY). Based on sequence stratigraphic analyses, four complete 3rd order depositional sequences and the lower part of a fifth one, each bounded by major unconformities, can be recognized: depositional sequence DS WA 1 (upper Middle – lower Upper Cenomanian) includes the entire Galala Formation, while the Maghra El Hadida Formation comprises all the overlying depositional sequences: DS WA 2 (upper Upper Cenomanian – Lower Turonian) reaches from the base of the Metoicoceras geslinianum Zone to the top of Wrightoceras munieri Zone, DS WA 3 and DS WA 4 comprise the Middle Turonian, while Upper Turonian sequence DS WA 5 is not complete. The stratigraphic positions of the recognized sequence 2 boundaries SB WA 1 to SB WA 5 match well with contemporaneous sequence boundaries known from Europe and elsewhere. The stacking pattern of the basic cycles and bundles of the Galala Formation (5:1) and the Maghra El Hadida Formation (4:1) strongly suggest an orbital forcing by MILANKOVITCH periodicities. The Galala Formation is composed of five 5th-order bundles which equal to ~500 kyr, each bundle equals to ~100 kyr (short eccentricity). Every bundle has five basic (6th-order) cycles, each one representing ~20 kyr (precession). Based on this precession-short eccentricity syndrome, the accumulation rate of the Galala Formation therefore accounts for about 19 cm/kyr. The rate of sea-level fall at sequence boundary SB WA 2 (equivalent to the quasi-global mid-Late Cenomanian SB Ce V) estimated is with 35 cm/kyr which can be explained only by glacio-eustasy. The Upper Cenomanian and Lower Turonian part of the Maghra El Hadida Formation is considered to equal to ~1200 kyr, based on the existence of three 4th-order bundles with an inferred duration of ~400 kyr for each bundle (long eccentricity of the MILANKOVITCH Band). Every bundle consists of four basic cycles with a duration of ~100 kyr. This means that the upper Cenomanian part of the Maghra El Hadida Formation is equivalent to ~400 kyr, while the Lower Turonian (consisting of the two upper bundles) lasted 800 kyr. This matches well with the recently proposed 785 kyr duration of the Early Turonian (SAGEMAN et al., 2006; VOIGT et al., 2008) and contradicts the 1300 kyr according to the standard time scale of GRADSTEIN et al. (2004). According to this temporal constrains, the accumulation rate of the Maghra El Hadida Formation is about 4.25 cm/kyr. In addition, based on the cyclostratigraphic analysis, the range of the Early Turonian genus Choffaticeras (HYATT) is equivalent to ~325 kyr and morphological changes within its lineage can be quantified. The macrobenthos (bivalves, gastropods, echinoids) and cephalopods of the Galala and Maghra El Hadida formations were identified and illustrated in 24 figures. The ammonite taxonomy and palaeobiogeographic distribution is discussed in detail. Four genera and eight ammonite species are recorded from Egypt for the first time. The microfloral and -faunal assemblage identified in thin sections revealed two species of dasycladalean algae, two species of udoteacean algae, five species of benthic foraminifera, and two species of crustacean microcoprolites. The six facies types of the upper Middle – Upper Cenomanian Galala Formation document largely open-lagoonal, warm water conditions, while the depositional environment of the Upper Cenomanian – Turonian Maghra El Hadida Formation (16 facies types) is suggested to range from a deep-subtidal to intertidal.