73.21.La Quantum dots
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Institute
This thesis treats the thermopower and other thermal effects in single quantum dots (QD) and quantum dot systems. It contributes new experimental results to the broad and active field of research on thermoelectrics in low dimensional systems. The thermopower experiments discussed in this work focus on QDs which exhibit a net spin and on tunnel-coupled double QDs (DQD). Furthermore, experiments are presented which address the realization of a QD device which extracts thermal energy from a heat reservoir and converts it into a directed charge current in a novel way.
The samples used for these investigations have been fabricated from GaAs/AlGaAs heterostructures which contain a two dimensional electron gas. Using optical and electron beam lithography, the devices have been realized by means of the top-gate technology. All experiments have been performed at low temperature. In order to create a controllable temperature difference in the samples the current heating technique has been used. These experimental basics as well as fundamentals of electric and thermoelectric transport are introduced in Part I of this thesis.
The experiments on the thermopower of a single QD are described in Part II. Essentially, they deal with the problem of how a single spin situated on a QD influences the thermoelectric properties of the system. In this context, the Kondo-effect plays a crucial role. Generally, the Kondo effect is the result of a many-body state which arises from an antiferromagnetic coupling of a magnetic impurity with the surrounding conduction electrons. Here, the magnetic impurity is represented by a QD which is occupied with an odd number of electrons so that it exhibits a net spin. For the first time the thermopower of a Kondo-QD has been studied systematically as a function of two parameters, namely the QD coupling energy and the sample temperature. Both parameters are crucial quantities for Kondo-physics to be observed. Based on these data, it is shown that the thermopower line shape as a function of QD energy is mainly determined by two competing contributions: On the one hand by the enhanced density of states around the Fermi level due to Kondo-correlations and on the other hand by thermopower contributions from the Coulomb resonances. Furthermore, the experiments confirm theoretical predictions which claim that the spectral DOS arising from Kondo-correlations shifts away from the Fermi level for those QD level configurations which are not electron-hole symmetric. Comparison with model calculations by T. Costi and V. Zlatic [Phys. Rev. B 81, 235127 (2010)] shows qualitative and partly even quantitative agreement. A finite thermovoltage at the center of the Kondo-region, which occurred in previous investigations, is also observed in the experiments presented here. It is not covered by the current theory of the Kondo effect. The dependence of this signal on temperature, coupling energy and magnetic field, which differ from non-Kondo regions, is analyzed. In order to clarify the physics behind this phenomenon further studies are desirable.
Furthermore, it is shown by variation of the QD coupling energy over a wide range that Kondo-correlations can be detected in the thermopower even in the regime of very weak coupling. In contrast, no Kondo signatures are visible in the conductance in this energy range. It is found that in the limit of weak coupling the Kondo effect causes the thermopower to exhibit a diminished amplitude in close vicinity of a conductance resonance. Subsequent filling of spin-degenerate states then leads to a thermopower amplitude modulation (odd-even-effect). Although this effect had been observed in previous studies, no connection to Kondo physics had been established in order to explain the observations.
Hence, the experiments on a single QD presented in this thesis provide unique insight into the complex interplay of different transport mechanisms in a spin-correlated QD. Moreover, the results confirm the potential of thermopower measurements as a highly sensitive tool to probe Kondo-correlations.
In Part III thermal effects are investigated in systems which contain two coupled QDs.
Such QD-systems are particularly interesting with respect to thermoelectric applications: Many proposals utilize the extremely sharp energy filtering properties of such coupled QDs and also different kinds of inter dot coupling to construct novel and highly efficient thermoelectric devices. In the present work, thermopower characterizations are performed on a tunnel-coupled DQD for the first time. The key result of these investigations is the thermopower stability diagram. Here it is found, that in such a system maximal thermopower is generated in the vicinity of the so-called triple points (TP) at which three charge states of the DQD are degenerate. Along the axis of total energy, which connects two adjacent TP, a typical thermopower line shape is observed. It is explained and modeled within an intuitive picture that assumes two transport channels across the DQD, representing the TP. For those regions which are far away from the TP, the thermopower turns out to be very sensitive to the relative configuration of the QD energies. The conductance and thermopower data are well reproduced within a model that assumes transport via molecular states. Integration of both models into one then allows model calculations for a complete stability cell in conductance and thermopower to be done.
Furthermore, experiments on two capacitively coupled QDs are presented. In these studies the focus lies on testing the feasibility of such systems for the manipulation and generation of charge currents from thermal energy. In a series of experiments it is shown that such a system of QDs can be utilized to increase or decrease a current flowing between two electron reservoirs by varying the temperature in a third reservoir. This effect is based on the cross-correlation of occupation fluctuations of the individual QDs. These are positive for certain QD energy level configurations and negative for others, which increases or decreases the charge current in the experiments, respectively. In the stability diagram this is manifested in a characteristic clover leaf shaped structure of positive and negative current changes in vicinity of the TP. All main experimental results are reproduced qualitatively in simple model calculations. Due to the close analogy between electrical and thermal conductance of a QD, this effect of thermal switching can, in principle, also be used to built a thermal transistor.
Finally, it is shown that a system consisting of two Coulomb-coupled QDs, which couple a hot electron reservoir electrostatically to two cold electron reservoirs, can be utilized as a novel device which extracts heat from its environment and converts it into a directed charge current. The idea of this heat-to-current converter (HCC) was first proposed by R. Sánchez and M. Büttiker [Phys. Rev. B 83, 085428 (2011)]. It is not only characterized by the novelty of its working principle but also by the fact, that it decouples the directions of charge current and energy flow. In the experiments presented here, such HCC-currents are identified unambiguously: For certain QD-level configurations an electric current between the two cold reservoirs is observed if the temperature in the third reservoir is increased. The direction of this current is shown to be independent of an external voltage. In contrast, the direction of the current exhibits a characteristic dependence on the tunneling coefficients of the QDs, as predicted by theory: By adjusting the thickness and the shape of the respective tunnel junctions, a charge current can be generated between two cold reservoirs, and it can even be inverted. The experimental observations are quantitatively reproduced by model calculations by R. Sánchez and B. Sothmann. Thus, the results represent direct evidence for the existence of HCC-currents. Due to the novelty of the working principle of the HCC and its relevance from a fundamental scientific point of view, the results presented here are an important step towards energy harvesting devices at the nano scale.
This thesis presents an experimental study of the thermoelectrical properties of semiconductor quantum dots (QD). The measurements give information about the interplay between first order tunneling and macroscopic quantum tunneling transport effects in the presence of thermal gradients by the direct comparison of the thermoelectric response and the energy spectrum of the QD. The aim of the thesis is to contribute to the understanding of the charge and spin transport in few-electron quantum dots with respect to potential applications in future quantum computing devices. It also gives new insight into the field of low temperature thermoelectricity. The investigated QDs were defined electrostatically in a two dimensional electron gas (2DEG) formed with a GaAs/(Al,Ga)As heterostructure by means of metallic gate electrodes on top of the heterostructure. Negative voltages with respect to the potential of the 2DEG applied to the gate electrodes were used to deplete the electron gas below them and to form an isolated island of electron gas in the 2DEG which contains a few ten electrons. This QD was electrically connected to the 2DEG via two tunneling barriers. A special electron heating technique was used to create a temperature difference between the two connecting reservoirs across the QD. The resulting thermoelectric voltage was used to study the charge and spin transport processes with respect to the discrete energy spectrum and the magnetic properties of the QD. Such a two dimensional island usually exhibits a discrete energy spectrum, which is comparable to that of atoms. At temperatures below a few degrees Kelvin, the electrostatic charging energy of the QDs exceeds the thermal activation energy of the electrons in the leads, and the transport of electrons through the QD is dominated by electron-electron interaction effects. The measurements clarify the overall line shape of thermopower oscillations and the observed fine structure as well as additional spin effects in the thermoelectrical transport. The observations demonstrate that it is possible to control and optimize the strength and direction of the electronic heat flow on the scale of a single impurity and create spin-correlated thermoelectric transport in nanostructures, where the experimenter has a close control of the exact transport conditions. The results support the assumption that the performance of thermoelectric devices can be enhanced by the adjustment of the QD energy levels and by exploiting the properties of the spin-correlated charge transport via localized, spin-degenerate impurity states. Within this context, spin entropy has been identified as a driving force for the thermoelectric transport in the spin-correlated transport regime in addition to the kinetic contributions. Fundamental considerations, which are based on simple model assumptions, suggest that spin entropy plays an important role in the presence of charge valence fluctuations in the QD. The presented model gives an adequate starting point for future quantitative analysis of the thermoelectricity in the spin-correlated transport regime. These future studies might cover the physics in the limit of single electron QDs or the physics of more complex structures such as QD molecules as well as QD chains. In particular, it should be noted that the experimental investigations of the thermopower of few-electron QDs address questions concerning the entropy transport and entropy production with respect to single-bit information processing operations. These questions are of fundamental physical interest due to their close connection to the problem of minimal energy requirements in communication, and thus ultimately to the so called "Maxwell's demon" with respect to the second law of thermodynamics.
Im Vergleich zu Quantenfilmlasern haben Quantenpunktlaser (unter anderem) die Vorteile, dass kleinere Schwellenströme zu erreichen sind und die Emissionswellenlänge über einen größeren Bereich abgestimmt werden kann, da diese aufgrund der Größenfluktuation im Quantenpunktensemble über ein breites Verstärkungsspektrum verfügen. Ziel des ersten Teils der Arbeit war es, monomodige 1.3 µm Quantenpunktlaser für Telekommunikationsanwendungen herzustellen und deren Eigenschaften zu optimieren. Es wurden sechs Quantenpunktschichten als aktive Zone in Laserstrukturen mit verbreitertem Wellenleiter eingebettet. Eine Messung der optischen Verstärkung einer solchen Laserstruktur mit sechs Quantenpunktschichten ergab einen Wert von 16.6 1/cm (für den Grundzustandsübergang) bei einer Stromdichte von 850 A/cm^2. Dadurch ist Laserbetrieb auf dem Grundzustand bis zu einer Resonatorlänge von 0.8 mm möglich. Für eine Laserstruktur mit sechs asymmetrischen DWELL-Schichten und optimierten Wachstumsparametern ergab sich eine Transparenzstromdichte von etwa 20 A/cm^2 pro Quantenpunktschicht und eine interne Quanteneffizienz von 0.47 bei einer internen Absorption von 1.0 1/cm. Aus den Laserproben wurden außerdem Stegwellenleiterlaser hergestellt. Mit einem 0.8 mm x 4 µm großen Bauteil konnte im gepulsten Betrieb Laseroszillation bis zu einer Rekordtemperatur von 156 °C gezeigt werden. 400 µm x 4 µm große Bauteile mit hochreflektierenden Spiegelvergütungen wiesen im Dauerstrichbetrieb Schwellenströme um 6 mA und externe Quanteneffizienzen an der Frontfacette von 0.23 W/A auf. Für Telekommunikationsanwendungen werden Bauteile benötigt, die lateral und longitudinal monomodig emittieren. Bei kantenemittierenden Lasern kann dies durch das DFB-Prinzip (DFB: distributed feedback) erreicht werden. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurden die weltweit ersten DFB-Laser auf der Basis von 1.3 µm Quantenpunktlaserstrukturen hergestellt. Dazu wurden lateral zu den Stegen durch Elektronenstrahllithographie Metallgitter definiert, die durch Absorption die Modenselektion bewirken. Dank des etwa 100 nm breiten Verstärkungsspektrums der Laserstrukturen konnte eine Verstimmung der Emissionswellenlänge über einen Wellenlängenbereich von 80 nm ohne signifikante Verschlechterung der Bauteildaten erzielt werden. Anhand der 0.8 mm langen Bauteile wurden die weltweit ersten ochfrequenzmessungen an Lasern dieser Art durchgeführt. Für Quantenpunktlaser sind theoretisch aufgrund der hohen differentiellen Verstärkung kleine statische Linienbreiten und ein kleiner Chirp zu erwarten. Dies zeigte sich auch im Experiment. Der zweite Teil der Arbeit befasst sich mit vertikal emittierenden Quantenpunktstrukturen. Ziel dieses Teils der Arbeit war es, Quantenpunkt-VCSEL mit dotierten Spiegeln zunächst im Wellenlängenbereich um 1 µm herzustellen und auf dieser Basis die Realisierbarkeit von 1.3 µm Quantenpunkt-VCSELn zu untersuchen. Zunächst wurden undotierte Mikroresonatorstrukturen für Grundlagenuntersuchungen hergestellt, um die Qualität der Spiegelschichten zu testen und zu optimieren. Diese Strukturen bestanden aus 23.5 Perioden von Spiegelschichten aus AlAs und GaAs im unteren DBR (DBR: Distributed Bragg Reflector), einer lambda-dicken Kavität aus GaAs mit einer Quantenpunktschicht im Zentrum und einem oberen DBR mit 20 Perioden. Es konnten Resonatoren mit sehr hohen Güten über 8000 realisiert werden. Für die weiteren Arbeiten hinsichtlich der Herstellung von Quantenpunkt-VCSEL-Strukturen haben die Untersuchungen an den Mikroresonatorstrukturen gezeigt, dass es an der verwendeten MBE-Anlage möglich ist, qualitativ sehr hochwertige Spiegelstrukturen herzustellen. Aufbauend auf den Ergebnissen, die aus der Herstellung und Charakterisierung der Mikroresonatorstrukturen gewonnen worden waren, wurden nun Quantenpunkt-VCSEL-Strukturen hergestellt. Es wurden Strukturen mit 17.5 Perioden im unteren und 21 Perioden im oberen DBR sowie mit 20.5 Perioden im unteren und 30 Perioden im oberen DBR hergestellt. Erwartungsgemäß zeigten die VCSEL mit der höheren Spiegelanzahl auch die besseren Bauteildaten. Um VCSEL auch im Dauerstrich betreiben zu können, wurden Bauteile mit Oxidapertur hergestellt. Dazu wurden bei 30 µm großen Mesen die beiden Aperturschichten aus AlAs auf beiden Seiten der Kavität zur Strompfadbegrenzung bis auf 6 µm einoxidiert. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Realisierung von Quantenpunkt-VCSELn im Wellenlängenbereich um 1 µm mit komplett dotierten Spiegeln ohne größere Abstriche bei den Bauteildaten möglich ist. Bei der Realisierung von 1.3 µm Quantenpunkt-VCSELn mit dotierten Spiegeln bereitet die im Vergleich zu den Absorptionsverlusten geringe optische Verstärkung Probleme.