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Polymer micelles are an attractive means to solubilize water insoluble compounds such as drugs. Drug loading, formulations stability and control over drug release are crucial factors for drug‐loaded polymer micelles. The interactions between the polymeric host and the guest molecules are considered critical to control these factors but typically barely understood. Here, we compare two isomeric polymer micelles, one of which enables ultra‐high curcumin loading exceeding 50 wt.%, while the other allows a drug loading of only 25 wt.%. In the low capacity micelles, steady‐state fluorescence revealed a very unusual feature of curcumin fluorescence, a high energy emission at 510 nm. Time‐resolved fluorescence upconversion showed that the fluorescence life time of the corresponding species is too short in the high‐capacity micelles, preventing an observable emission in steady‐state. Therefore, contrary to common perception, stronger interactions between host and guest can be detrimental to the drug loading in polymer micelles.
Structure-property relationships in poly(2-oxazoline)/poly(2-oxazine) based drug formulations
(2020)
According to estimates, more than 40% of all new chemical entities developed in pharmaceutical industry are practically insoluble in water. Naturally, the demand for excipients which increase the water solubility and thus, the bioavailability of such hydrophobic drugs is enormous. Poly(2-oxazoline)s (POx) are currently intensively discussed as highly versatile class of biomaterials. Although selected POx based micellar drug formulations exhibit extraordinarily high drug loadings > 50 wt.% enabling high anti-tumor efficacies in vivo, the formulation of other hydrophobic compounds has failed. This casts doubt on the general understanding in which a hydrophobic active pharmaceutical ingredient is dissolved rather unspecifically in the hydrophobic core of the micelles following the fundamental concept of “like dissolves like”. Therefore, a closer look at the interactions between all components within a formulation becomes increasingly important. To do so, a large vehicle platform was synthesized, loaded with various hydrophobic drugs of different structure, and the formulations subsequently characterized with conventional and less conventional techniques. The obtained in-depth insights helped to develop a more thorough understanding about the interaction of polymer and incorporated API finally revealing morphologies deviating from a classical core/shell structure. During these studies, the scarcely investigated polymer class of poly(2-oxazine)s (POzi) was found as promising drug-delivery vehicle for hydrophobic drugs. Apart from this fundamental research, the anti-tumor efficacy of the two APIs curcumin and atorvastatin has been studied in more detail. To increase the scope of POx and POzi based formulations designed for intravenous administration, a curcumin loaded hydrogel was developed as injectable drug-depot.
Background: Culturing of cells is typically performed on standard tissue culture plates generating growth conditions, which in general do not reflect the native three-dimensional cellular environment. Recent investigations provide insights in parameters, which strongly affect the general cellular behavior triggering essential processes such as cell differentiation. The physical properties of the used material, such as stiffness, roughness, or topology, as well as the chemical composition of the cell-surface interface are shown to play a key role in the initiation of particular cellular responses. Methods: We extended our previous research, which identified thin films of metallo-supramolecular coordination polyelectrolytes (MEPEs) as substrate to trigger the differentiation of muscular precursor cells. Results: Here, we show that the same MEPEs similarly stimulate the osteogenic differentiation of pre-osteoblasts. Remarkably, MEPE modified surfaces also trigger the differentiation of primary bone derived mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) towards the osteogenic lineage. Conclusion: This result leads to the conclusion that these surfaces individually support the specification of cell differentiation toward lineages that correspond to the natural commitment of the particular cell types. We, therefore, propose that Fe-MEPEs may be used as scaffold for the treatment of defects at least in muscular or bone tissue.
In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden magnetische Kompositpartikel für den Einsatz in Flüssigkeiten entwickelt. Der Aufbau der Partikel erfolgte dabei modular, sodass eine Anpassung an verschiedene Einsatzmöglichkeiten realisierbar sein sollte. Die gezeigten Arbeiten bauen auf Partikeln bestehend aus magnetischen Nanopartikeln eingebettet in eine Silica-Matrix als Trägerpartikel auf, welche im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit weiterentwickelt wurden. Der Schwerpunkt lag dabei auf der Entwicklung eines Adsorbermaterials für Phosphat als Funktionalisierung für die magnetischen Trägerpartikel, welches für den Einsatz der Entfernung von Phosphat aus kommunalem Abwasser geeignet sein sollte, sowie dessen Einsatz im Labor- und Technikumsmaßstab. Besonderes Augenmerk lag auf der umfassenden Charakterisierung des entwickelten Matrerials sowie der Aufklärung des Wirkmechanismus bei der Phosphatadsorption. Ein weiterer Teil der Arbeit beschäftigte sich mit der Steigerung der Magnetisierung des magnetischen Anteils der Partikel für eine verbesserte magnetische Abtrennung. Um die vielseitige Einsetzbarkeit der magnetischen Trägerpartikel zu demonstrieren, wurden abschließend weitere Funktionalisierungen für diese entwickelt und deren Anwendbarkeit grundlegend getestet. So wurde zum einen eine Modifizierung mit Komplexverbindungen und Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOF) realisiert mit dem möglichen Einsatzgebiet der Wasserdetektion in organischen Lösemitteln. Zum anderen wurde eine Beschichtung mit Kohlenstoff durchgeführt und die Entfernung von organischen Farbstoffmolekülen aus Wasser untersucht.
Aim of this thesis was the development of functionalizable hydrogel coatings for melt electrowritten PCL scaffolds and of bioprintable hydrogels for biofabrication.
Hydrogel coatings of melt electrowritten scaffolds enabled to control the surface hydrophilicity, thereby allowing cell-material interaction studies of biofunctionalized scaffolds in minimal protein adhesive environments. For this purpose, a hydrophilic star- shaped crosslinkable polymer was used and the coating conditions were optimized. Moreover, newly developed photosensitive scaffolds facilitated a time and pH independent biofunctionalization.
Bioprintable hydrogels for biofabrication were based on the allyl-functionalization of gelatin (GelAGE) and modified hyaluronic acid-products, to enable hydrogel crosslinking by means of the thiol-ene click chemistry. Optimization of GelAGE hydrogel properties was achieved through an in-depth analysis of the synthesis parameters, varying Ene:SH ratios, different crosslinking molecules and photoinitiators. Homogeneity of thiol-ene crosslinked networks was compared to free radical polymerized hydrogels and the applicability of GelAGE as bioink for extrusion-based bioprinting was investigated. Purely hyaluronic acid-based bioinks were hypothesized to maintain mechanical- and rheological properties, cell viabilities and the processability, upon further decreasing the overall hydrogel polymer and thiol content.
Hydrogel coatings: Highly structured PCL scaffolds were fabricated with MEW and subjected to coatings with six-armed star-shaped crosslinkable polymers (sP(EO-stat-PO)). Crosslinking results from the aqueous induced hydrolysis of reactive isocyanate groups (NCO) of sP(EO-stat-PO) and increased the surface hydrophilicity and provided a platform for biofunctionalizations in minimal protein adhesive environments. Not only the coating procedure was optimized with respect to sP(EO-stat-PO) concentrations and coating durations, instead scaffold pre-treatments were developed, which were fundamental to enhance the final hydrophilicity to completely avoid unspecific protein adsorption on sP(EO-stat-PO) coated scaffolds. The sP(EO-stat-PO) layer thickness of around 100 nm generally allows in vitro studies not only in dependence on the scaffold biofunctionalization but also on the scaffold architecture. The hydrogel coating extent was assessed via an indirect quantification of the NCO-hydrolysis products. Knowledge of NCO-hydrolysis kinetics enabled to achieve a balance of sufficiently coated scaffolds while maintaining the presence of NCO-groups that were exploited for subsequent biofunctionalizations. However, this time and pH dependent biofunctionalization was restricted to small biomolecules. In order to overcome this limitation and to couple high molecular weight biomolecules another reaction route was developed. This route was based on the photolysis of diazirine moieties and enabled a time and pH independent scaffold biofunctionalization with streptavidin and collagen type I. The fibril formation ability of collagen was used to obtain different collagen conformations on the scaffolds and a preliminary in vitro study demonstrated the applicability to investigate cell-material interactions.
The herein developed scaffolds could be applied to gain deeper insights into the fundamentals of cellular sensing. Especially the complexity by which cells sense e.g. collagen remain to be further elucidated. Therefore, different hierarchies of collagen-like conformations could be coupled to the scaffolds, e.g. gelatin or collagen-derived peptide sequences, and the activation of DDR receptors in dependence on the complexity of the coupled substances could be determined. Due to the strong streptavidin-biotin bond, streptavidin functionalized scaffolds could be applied as a versatile platform to allow immobilization of any biotinylated molecules.
Gelatin-based bioinks: First the GelAGE products were synthesized with respect to molecular weight distributions and amino acid composition integrity. A detailed study was conducted with varying molar ratios of reactants and synthesis durations and implied that gelatin degradation was most dominant for high alkaline synthesis conditions with long reaction times. Gelatin possesses multiple functionalizable groups and the predominant functionalization of amine groups was confirmed via different model substances and analyses. Polymer network homogeneity was proven for the GelAGE system compared to free radical polymerized hydrogels with GelMA. A detailed analysis of hydrogel compositions with varying functional group ratios and UV- or Vis-light photoinitiators was executed. The UV-initiator concentration is restricted due to cytotoxicity and potential cellular DNA damages upon UV-irradiation, whereas the more cytocompatible Vis- initiator system enabled mechanical stiffness tuning over a wide range by controlling the photoinitiator concentration at constant Ene:SH ratios and polymer weight percentages. Versatility of the GelAGE bioink for different AM techniques was proved by exploiting the thermo-gelling behavior of differently degraded GelAGE products for stereolithography and extrusion-based printing. Moreover, the viability of cell-laden GelAGE constructs was demonstrated for extrusion-based bioprinting. By applying different multifunctional thiol-macromolecular crosslinkers the mechanical and rheological properties improved concurrently to the processability. Importantly, lower thiol-crosslinker concentrations were required to yield superior mechanical strengths and physico-chemical properties of the hydrogels as compared to the small bis-thiol-crosslinker. Extrusion-based bioprinting with distinct encapsulated cells underlined the need for individual optimization of cell-laden hydrogel formulations.
Not only the viability of encapsulated cells in extrusion-based bioprinted constructs should be assessed, instead other parameters such as cell morphology or production of collagen or glycosaminoglycans should be considered as these represent some of the crucial prerequisites for cartilage Tissue Engineering applications. Moreover, these studies should be expanded to the stereolithographic approach and ultimately the versatility and cytocompatibility of formulations with macromolecular crosslinkers would be of interest. Macromolecular crosslinkers allowed reducing polymer weight percentages and amounts of thiol groups and are thus expected to contribute to increased cytocompatibility, especially in combination with the more cytocompatible Vis-initiator system, which remains to be elucidated.
Hyaluronic acid-based bioinks: Different molecular weight hyaluronic acid (HA) products were synthesized to bear ene- (HAPA) or thiol-functionalities (LHASH) to enable pure HA thiol-ene crosslinked hydrogels. Depending on the molecular weight of modified HA products, polymer weight percentages and Ene:SH ratios, a wide range of mechanical stiffness was covered. However, the manageability of high molecular weight HA (HHAPA) product solutions (HHAPA + LHASH) was restricted to 5.0 wt.-% as a consequence of the high viscosity. Based on the same HA thiol component (LHASH), hybrid hydrogels of HA with GelAGE were compared to pure HA hydrogels. Although the overall polymer weight percentage of HHAPA + LHASH hydrogels was significantly lowered compared to hybrid hydrogels (GelAGE + LHASH), similar mechanical and physico-chemical properties of pure HA hydrogels were determined with maintained Ene:SH ratios. Low viscous low molecular weight HA precursor solutions (LHAPA + LHASH) prevented the applicability for extrusion-based bioprinting, whereas the non-thermoresponsive HHAPA + LHASH system could be bioprinted with only one-fourth of the polymer content of hybrid formulations. The high viscous behavior of HHAPA + LHASH solutions, lower polymer weight percentages, decreased printing pressures and consequently declined shear stress during printing, were hypothesized to contribute to high cell viabilities in extrusion-based bioprinted constructs compared to the hybrid bioink.
The low molecular weight HA precursor formulation (LHAPA + LHASH) was not applicable for extrusion-based printing, but this system has potential for other AM techniques such as stereolithography. Similar to the GelAGE system a more detailed study on the functions of encapsulated cells would be useful to further develop this system. Moreover, the initiation with the Vis-initiator should be conducted.
In der vorliegenden Dissertation - Kathoden für Metall-Luft Batterien - steht die Komponente Gasdiffusionselektrode (GDE) – oftmals auch als Luft-Kathode bezeichnet – einer wässrigen Metall-Luft Batterie im Fokus.
Ziel dieser Arbeit ist die Synthese und Charakterisierung verschiedener Katalysatorsysteme für die Sauerstoffreduktion und -evolution. Dabei soll auf die Verwendung von Edelmetallen verzichtet und der Einsatz von verfügbaren und günstigen Materialien bzw. Herstellungsprozessen favorisiert werden. Auf Basis von bekannten Materialklassen sollen repräsentative Katalysatoren synthetisiert und ihre katalytischen Aktivitäten für die Sauerstoffreduktion und -evolution bestimmt werden. Im Detail wird eine mögliche Korrelation der strukturellen Eigenschaften der Katalysatoren auf die katalytische Aktivität untersucht. Auf Basis dieser Erkenntnisse sollen die Katalysatoren modifiziert werden, um die katalytischen Eigenschaften weiter zu optimieren. Um einen geschlossenen Entwicklungszyklus in dieser Arbeit realisieren zu können, wird parallel ein kostengünstiger und skalierbarer Herstellungsprozess von GDEs entwickelt.
Ein weiteres Ziel dieser Arbeit ist es, Konzepte für sekundäre Zink-Luft Energiespeicher zu erarbeiten und deren Umsetzung zu untersuchen. Dabei kommen die zuvor entwickelten Katalysatoren zum Einsatz.
Die vorliegende Arbeit gliedert sich, nach der Darlegung der relevanten Grundlagen mit Stand der Wissenschaft und Technik, in vier Teilkapitel, in denen die einzelnen Ziele adressiert sind. Dies sind die Erforschung reiner Katalysatoren und hybrider Katalysatoren sowie die Etablierung eines Herstellungsprozesses für GDEs und die Implementierung dieser in sekundäre Zink-Luft Energiespeicher. Die experimentellen Grundlagen befinden sich im darauffolgenden Kapitel.
New multifunctional nanoparticles (NPs) that can be used as contrast agents (CA) in different imaging techniques, such as photoluminescence (PL) microscopy and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), open new possibilities for medical imaging, e.g., in the fields of diagnostics or tissue characterization in regenerative medicine. The focus of this study is on the synthesis and characterization of CaF\(_{2}\):(Tb\(^{3+}\),Gd\(^{3+}\)) NPs. Fabricated in a wet-chemical procedure, the spherical NPs with a diameter of 5–10 nm show a crystalline structure. Simultaneous doping of the NPs with different lanthanide ions, leading to paramagnetism and fluorescence, makes them suitable for MR and PL imaging. Owing to the Gd\(^{3+}\) ions on the surface, the NPs reduce the MR T\(_{1}\) relaxation time constant as a function of their concentration. Thus, the NPs can be used as a MRI CA with a mean relaxivity of about r = 0.471 mL·mg\(^{−1}\)·s\(^{−1}\). Repeated MRI examinations of four different batches prove the reproducibility of the NP synthesis and determine the long-term stability of the CAs. No cytotoxicity of NP concentrations between 0.5 and 1 mg·mL\(^{−1}\) was observed after exposure to human dermal fibroblasts over 24 h. Overall this study shows, that the CaF\(_{2}\):(Tb\(^{3+}\),Gd\(^{3+}\)) NPs are suitable for medical imaging.
Motivated by the great potential which is offered by the combination of additive manufacturing and tissue engineering, a novel polymeric bioink platform based on poly(2 oxazoline)s was developed which might help to further advance the young and upcoming field of biofabrication. In the present thesis, the synthesis as well as the characteristics of several diblock copolymers consisting of POx and POzi have been investigated with a special focus on their suitability as bioinks.
In general, the copolymerization of 2-oxazolines and 2-oxazines bearing different alkyl side chains was demonstrated to yield polymers in good agreement with the degree of polymerization aimed for and moderate to low dispersities.
For every diblock copolymer synthesized during the present study, a more or less pronounced dependency of the dynamic viscosity on temperature could be demonstrated. Diblock copolymers comprising a hydrophilic PMeOx block and a thermoresponsive PnPrOzi block showed temperature induced gelation above a degree of polymerization of 50 and a polymer concentration of 20 wt%. Such a behavior has never been described before for copolymers solely consisting of poly(cyclic imino ether)s.
Physically cross linked hydrogels based on POx b POzi copolymers exhibit reverse thermal gelation properties like described for solutions of PNiPAAm and Pluronic F127. However, by applying SANS, DLS, and SLS it could be demonstrated that the underlying gel formation mechanism is different for POx b POzi based hydrogels. It appears that polymersomes with low polydispersity are formed already at very low polymer concentrations of 6 mg/L. Increasing the polymer concentration resulted in the formation of a bicontinuous sponge like structure which might be formed due to the merger of several vesicles. For longer polymer chains a phase transition into a gyroid structure was postulated and corresponds well with the observed rheological data.
Stable hydrogels with an unusually high mechanical strength (G’ ~ 4 kPa) have been formed above TGel which could be adjusted over a range of 20 °C by changing the degree of polymerization if maintaining the symmetric polymer architecture. Variations of the chain ends revealed only a minor influence on TGel whereas the influence of the solvent should not be neglected as shown by a comparison of cell culture medium and MilliQ water.
Rotationally as well as oscillatory rheological measurements revealed a high suitability for printing as POx b POzi based hydrogels exhibit strong shear thinning behavior in combination with outstanding recovery properties after high shear stress.
Cell viability assays (WST-1) of PMeOx b PnPrOzi copolymers against NIH 3T3 fibroblasts and HaCat cells indicated that the polymers were well tolerated by the cells as no dose-dependent cytotoxicity could be observed after 24 h at non-gelling concentrations up to 100 g/L.
In summary, copolymers consisting of POx and POzi significantly increased the accessible range of properties of POx based materials. In particular thermogelation of aqueous solutions of diblock copolymers comprising PMeOx and PnPrOzi was never described before for any copolymer consisting solely of POx or POzi. In combination with other characteristics, e.g. very good cytocompatibility at high polymer concentrations and comparably high mechanical strength, the formed hydrogels could be successfully used for 3D bioprinting. Although the results appear promising and the developed hydrogel is a serious bioink candidate, competition is tough and it remains an open question which system or systems will be used in the future.
In dieser Arbeit konnten ethanolische Sole aus TEOT und der metabolisierbaren α-Hydroxycarbonsäure Milchsäure (LA) in spinnfähige viskose Spinnmassen überführt werden und erstmalig über die Methode des Druckspinnens zu Mikrofasern prozessiert werden.
Die hybriden Fasern sind intrinsisch stabil. Über FTIR- und 13C-MAS-NMR-Untersuchungen konnte gezeigt werden, dass in der Faser der Koordinationsmodus von LA an Ti sowohl im mono- als auch im bidentaten Modus (Nomenklatur bezogen auf die Säureeinheit) vorliegt.
Die nähere Untersuchung des Degradationsverhaltens einer LA-Faser zeigte hauptsächlich die Freisetzung von Lactat und Ethanol innerhalb weniger Stunden. Danach kann kaum noch ein Massenverlust der Fasern nachgewiesen werden. Vermutlich ist die Degradationsgeschwindigkeit abhängig von der Sättigungskonzentration der wasserlöslichen Titanoxid-Spezies Ti(OH)4 und Ti(O)(OH)2. Die Löslichkeit dieser Verbindungen beträgt ca. 1 µmol/L. Die Freisetzung von Titanverbindungen an das Degradationsmedium konnte über ICP-Messungen und indirekt auch über NMR-Messungen der Degradationsprodukte in Lösung nachgewiesen werden. Nach ca. einer Woche in Lösung bildet sich der wasserlösliche metallorganische Komplex TiBALDH. Dieser Komplex zeigt keinen negativen Einfluss auf die Umwelt, so dass Zellkulturmedien, die in Kontakt mit den Fasermaterialien getreten sind, in Zukunft nach dem Autoklavieren gefahrlos entsorgt werden können.
Zudem sollte keines der detektierten Abbauprodukte in den abgegebenen Mengen toxisch auf den humanen Organismus bei in vivo-Anwendungen wirken. Lactat und Ethanol können im menschlichen Organismus verstoffwechselt werden. TIBALDH ist dem im menschlichen Serum nachweisbaren Titan(IV)citrat-Komplex strukturell sehr ähnlich. Aufgrund der Tatsache, dass die Bildung von TiBALDH ca. 1 Woche dauert, ist die vorherige Bildung des Titan(IV)citrat-Komplexes im humanen Organismus wahrscheinlich.
Weiterhin konnte das hybride Fasermaterial durch den Zusatz von basischen Stoffen neutralisiert werden und nach Vorkonditionierung der Fasern als nicht zytotoxisch eingestuft werden. Als Gegenionen wurde Ammonium, das biogene Amin Phenethylamin, die Aminosäure Phenylalanin und das Biopolymer CHI getestet. Für zukünftige Weiterentwicklungen können auch basische Wirkstoffe als Gegenionen herangezogen werden. Somit könnte das hybride Zellträgermaterial zusätzlich eine Drug-Delivery-Funktion erhalten.
Die LA-Fasern verhalten sich nach dem Verspinnen sehr flexibel. Bei einer Lagerung bei RT jedoch verspröden diese sehr schnell innerhalb von 3 d. Diese Materialeigenschaft wurde im zweiten Teil der Arbeit näher untersucht und optimiert.
Tempern des Fasermaterials bei 170 °C bewirkte eine Umlagerung der LA-Liganden zu AA-Liganden, aber keine Verbesserung der mechanischen Eigenschaften. Versuche einer getemperten LA-Faser mit CHI als Gegenion zeigte durchwegs positive Eigenschaften in den Zytotoxizitätstests und auf deren Oberfläche konnten Zellen der Zelllinien L929, 16HBE, HTB94 und MG63 erfolgreich kultiviert werden.
Durch die Verwendung anderer metabolisierbarer α Hydroxycarbonsäuren konnten Rückschlüsse auf die chemische Zusammensetzung der Fasern gezogen werden. Die Fasern scheinen aus wenig untereinander vernetzen Titan-oxo-carboxo-Clustern der Summenformel [Ti6O6(OR)6(Carboxylat)6] (mit R = H2+, H, Et oder „Ti6O6(OR)5(Carboxylat)6“) zu bestehen. Durch Variation der verwendeten Säuren konnten die Wechselwirkungen der Cluster untereinander verstärkt werden, so dass beispielsweise eine Faser mit MA bedeutend flexiblere Eigenschaften – auch bei einer Lagerung für 3d bei RT aufweist. Des Weiteren konnte durch Lagerung dieser Faser bei 4 °C der Versprödungsprozess für mind. 1 Monat gestoppt werden. Eine Lagerung von Medizinprodukten bei 4 °C stellt in Ländern mit ausreichender Infrastruktur kein Problem dar.
Aufbauend auf diesen Tatsachen und TGA-MS-Messungen konnte die These aufgestellt werden, dass sich zwischen den wenig untereinander vernetzten Titan-oxo-carboxo-Cluster direkt nach dem Verspinnen noch Wassermoleküle befinden. Diese Reste an Wasser verleihen – vermutlich aufgrund der Ausbildung von Wasserstoffbrückenbindungen – der Faser flexible Eigenschaften. Bei einer Lagerung bei RT entweichen diese Wasserreste und die Faser versprödet; bei einer Lagerung bei 4°C wird das Verdampfen des restlichen Wassers bedeutend verlangsamt.
Die Faser mit den flexibelsten Eigenschaften konnte letztendlich durch die Verwendung des zweizähnigen Carboxylat-Liganden MalA erhalten werden.
Zusammenfassend konnte in dieser Arbeit ein neuartiges faserförmiges Material auf Basis von Titan-oxo-carboxo-Clustern produziert werden, welches großes Potential besitzt als Zellträgermaterial Anwendung zu finden. Aufbauend auf den hier gewonnenen Ergebnissen können die mechanischen Eigenschaften weiter optimiert und die Anforderungen des gewünschten Zielgewebes feinjustiert werden. Zudem besteht die Möglichkeit dem Material Drug-Delivery-Eigenschaften zu verleihen. Somit könnte das Scaffold aus Mikrofasern neben den bereits integrierten chemischen und physikalischen Stimuli (die Oberflächenfunktionalitäten und die Oberflächentopographie der Fasern) auch durch freigesetzte Wirkstoffe Zellen zur gewünschten Differenzierung anregen.
Positron annihilation lifetime spectroscopy (PALS) provides a powerful technique for non-destructive microstructure investigations in a broad field of material classes such as metals, semiconductors, polymers or porous glasses. Even though this method is well established for more than five decades, no proper standardization for the used setup configuration and subsequent data processing exists. Eventually, this could lead to an insufficiency of data reproducibility and avoidable deviations.
Here we present experimentally obtained and simulated data of positron lifetime spectra at various statistics measured on pure tin (4N-Sn) by using a semi-analog/digital setup, where the digital section consists of the DRS4 evaluation board, “Design and performance of the 6 GHz waveform digitizing chip DRS4” [1]. The analog section consists of nuclear instrument modules (NIM), which externally trigger the DRS4 evaluation board to reduce the digitization and, thus, increase the acquisition efficiency. For the experimentally obtained lifetime spectra, 22Na sealed in Kapton foil served as a positron source, whereas 60Co was used for the acquisition of the prompt spectrum, i.e. the quasi instrument response function. Both types of measurements were carried out under the same conditions.
All necessary data and information regarding the data acquisition and data reduction are provided to allow reproducibility by other research groups.