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Background
Tapeworms lack a canonical piRNA-pathway, raising the question of how they can silence existing mobile genetic elements (MGE). Investigation towards the underlying mechanisms requires information on tapeworm transposons which is, however, presently scarce.
Methods
The presence of densovirus-related sequences in tapeworm genomes was studied by bioinformatic approaches. Available RNA-Seq datasets were mapped against the Echinococcus multilocularis genome to calculate expression levels of densovirus-related genes. Transcription of densovirus loci was further analyzed by sequencing and RT-qPCR.
Results
We herein provide evidence for the presence of densovirus-related elements in a variety of tapeworm genomes. In the high-quality genome of E. multilocularis we identified more than 20 individual densovirus integration loci which contain the information for non-structural and structural virus proteins. The majority of densovirus loci are present as head-to-tail concatemers in isolated repeat containing regions of the genome. In some cases, unique densovirus loci have integrated close to histone gene clusters. We show that some of the densovirus loci of E. multilocularis are actively transcribed, whereas the majority are transcriptionally silent. RT-qPCR data further indicate that densovirus expression mainly occurs in the E. multilocularis stem cell population, which probably forms the germline of this organism. Sequences similar to the non-structural densovirus genes present in E. multilocularis were also identified in the genomes of E. canadensis, E. granulosus, Hydatigera taeniaeformis, Hymenolepis diminuta, Hymenolepis microstoma, Hymenolepis nana, Taenia asiatica, Taenia multiceps, Taenia saginata and Taenia solium.
Conclusions
Our data indicate that densovirus integration has occurred in many tapeworm species. This is the first report on widespread integration of DNA viruses into cestode genomes. Since only few densovirus integration sites were transcriptionally active in E. multilocularis, our data are relevant for future studies into gene silencing mechanisms in tapeworms. Furthermore, they indicate that densovirus-based vectors might be suitable tools for genetic manipulation of cestodes.
Gonorrhea is the second most common sexually transmitted infection in the world and is caused by Gram-negative diplococcus Neisseria gonorrhoeae. Since N. gonorrhoeae is a human-specific pathogen, animal infection models are only of limited use. Therefore, a suitable in vitro cell culture model for studying the complete infection including adhesion, transmigration and transport to deeper tissue layers is required. In the present study, we generated three independent 3D tissue models based on porcine small intestinal submucosa (SIS) scaffold by co-culturing human dermal fibroblasts with human colorectal carcinoma, endometrial epithelial, and male uroepithelial cells. Functional analyses such as transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER) and FITC-dextran assay indicated the high barrier integrity of the created monolayer. The histological, immunohistochemical, and ultra-structural analyses showed that the 3D SIS scaffold-based models closely mimic the main characteristics of the site of gonococcal infection in human host including the epithelial monolayer, the underlying connective tissue, mucus production, tight junction, and microvilli formation. We infected the established 3D tissue models with different N. gonorrhoeae strains and derivatives presenting various phenotypes regarding adhesion and invasion. The results indicated that the disruption of tight junctions and increase in interleukin production in response to the infection is strain and cell type-dependent. In addition, the models supported bacterial survival and proved to be better suitable for studying infection over the course of several days in comparison to commonly used Transwell® models. This was primarily due to increased resilience of the SIS scaffold models to infection in terms of changes in permeability, cell destruction and bacterial transmigration. In summary, the SIS scaffold-based 3D tissue models of human mucosal tissues represent promising tools for investigating N. gonorrhoeae infections under close-to-natural conditions.
With the technological advances of the last decade, it is now feasible to analyze microbiome samples, such as human stool specimens, using multi-omic techniques. Given the inherent sample complexity, there exists a need for sample methods which preserve as much information as possible about the biological system at the time of sampling. Here, we analyzed human stool samples preserved and stored using different methods, applying metagenomics as well as metaproteomics. Our results demonstrate that sample preservation and storage have a significant effect on the taxonomic composition of identified proteins. The overall identification rates, as well as the proportion of proteins from Actinobacteria were much higher when samples were flash frozen. Preservation in RNAlater overall led to fewer protein identifications and a considerable increase in the share of Bacteroidetes, as well as Proteobacteria. Additionally, a decrease in the share of metabolism-related proteins and an increase of the relative amount of proteins involved in the processing of genetic information was observed for RNAlater-stored samples. This suggests that great care should be taken in choosing methods for the preservation and storage of microbiome samples, as well as in comparing the results of analyses using different sampling and storage methods. Flash freezing and subsequent storage at −80 °C should be chosen wherever possible.
Endogenous clocks regulate physiological as well as behavioral rhythms within all organisms. They are well investigated in D. melanogaster on a molecular as well as anatomical level. The neuronal clock network within the brain represents the center for rhythmic activity control. One neuronal clock subgroup, the pigment dispersing factor (PDF) neurons, stands out for its importance in regulating rhythmic behavior. These neurons express the neuropeptide PDF (pigment dispersing factor). A small neuropil at the medulla’s edge, the accessory medulla (AME), is of special interest, as it has been determined as the main center for clock control. It is not only highly innervated by the PDF neurons but also by terminals of all other clock neuron subgroups. Furthermore, terminals of the photoreceptors provide light information to the AME. Many different types of neurons converge within the AME and afterward spread to their next target. Thereby the AME is supplied with information from a variety of brain regions. Among these neurons are the aminergic ones whose receptors’ are expressed in the PDF neurons. The present study sheds light onto putative synaptic partners and anatomical arrangements within the neuronal clock network, especially within the AME, as such knowledge is a prerequisite to understand circadian behavior. The aminergic neurons’ conspicuous vicinity to the PDF neurons suggests synaptic communication among them. Thus, based on former anatomical studies regarding this issue detailed light microscopic studies have been performed. Double immunolabellings, analyses of the spatial relation of pre- and postsynaptic sites of the individual neuron populations with respect to each other and the identification of putative synaptic partners using GRASP reenforce the hypothesis of synaptic interactions within the AME between dopaminergic/ serotonergic neurons and the PDF neurons. To shed light on the synaptic partners I performed first steps in array tomography, as it allows terrific informative analyses of fluorescent signals on an ultrastructural level. Therefore, I tested different ways of sample preparation in order to achieve and optimize fluorescent signals on 100 nm thin tissue sections and I made overlays with electron microscopic images. Furthermore, I made assumptions about synaptic modulations within the neuronal clock network via glial cells. I detected their cell bodies in close vicinity to the AME and PDFcontaining clock neurons. It has already been shown that glial cells modulate the release of PDF from s-LNvs’ terminals within the dorsal brain. On an anatomical level this modulation appears to exist also within the AME, as synaptic contacts that involve PDF-positive dendritic terminals are embedded into glial fibers. Intriguingly, these postsynaptic PDF fibers are often VIIAbstract part of dyadic or even multiple-contact sites in opposite to prolonged presynaptic active zonesimplicating complex neuronal interactions within the AME. To unravel possible mechanisms of such synaptic arrangements, I tried to localize the ABC transporter White. Its presence within glial cells would indicate a recycling mechanism of transmitted amines which allows their fast re-provision. Taken together, synapses accompanied by glial cells appear to be a common arrangement within the AME to regulate circadian behavior. The complexity of mechanisms that contribute in modulation of circadian information is reflected by the complex diversity of synaptic arrangements that involves obviously several types of neuron populations
Staphylococcus aureus asymptomatically colonizes the skin and anterior nares of 20-30% of the healthy human population. As an opportunistic human pathogen it elicits a variety of infections ranging from skin and soft tissue infections to highly severe manifestations such as pneumonia, endocarditis and osteomyelitis. Due to the emergence of multi resistant strains, treatment of staphylococcal infections becomes more and more challenging and the WHO therefore classified S. aureus as a “superbug”. The variety of diseases triggered by S. aureus is the result of a versatile expression of a large set of virulence factors. The most prominent virulence factor is the cytotoxic and haemolytic pore-forming α-toxin whose expression is mediated by a complex regulatory network involving two-component systems such as the agr quorum-sensing system, accessory transcriptional regulators and alternative sigma-factors. However, the intricate regulatory network is not yet understood in its entirety. Recently, a transposon mutation screen identified the AraC-family transcriptional regulator ‘Repressor of surface proteins’ (Rsp) to regulate haemolysis, cytotoxicity and the expression of various virulence associated factors. Deletion of rsp was accompanied by a complete loss of transcription of a 1232 nt long non-coding RNA, SSR42.
This doctoral thesis focuses on the molecular and functional characterization of SSR42. By analysing the transcriptome and proteome of mutants in either SSR42 or both SSR42 and rsp, as well as by complementation of SSR42 in trans, the ncRNA was identified as the main effector of Rsp-mediated virulence. Mutants in SSR42 exhibited strong effects on transcriptional and translational level when compared to wild-type bacteria. These changes resulted in phenotypic alterations such as strongly reduced haemolytic activity and cytotoxicity towards epithelial cells as well as reduced virulence in a murine infection model. Deletion of SSR42 further promoted the formation of small colony variants (SCV) during long term infection of endothelial cells and demonstrated the importance of this molecule for intracellular bacteria. The impact of this ncRNA on staphylococcal haemolysis was revealed to be executed by modulation of sae mRNA stability and by applying mutational studies functional domains within SSR42 were identified.
Moreover, various stressors modulated the transcription of SSR42 and antibiotic challenge resulted in SSR42-dependently increased haemolysis and cytotoxicity. Transcription of SSR42 itself was found under control of various important global regulators including AgrA, SaeS, CodY and σB, thereby illustrating a central position in S. aureus virulence gene regulation.
The present study thus demonstrates SSR42 as a global virulence regulatory RNA which is important for haemolysis, disease progression and adaption of S. aureus to intracellular conditions via formation of SCVs.
It is assumed that a properly timed circadian clock enhances fitness, but only few studies have truly demonstrated this in animals. We raised each of the three classical Drosophila period mutants for >50 generations in the laboratory in competition with wildtype flies. The populations were either kept under a conventional 24-h day or under cycles that matched the mutant’s natural cycle, i.e., a 19-h day in the case of pers mutants and a 29-h day for perl mutants. The arrhythmic per0 mutants were grown together with wildtype flies under constant light that renders wildtype flies similar arrhythmic as the mutants. In addition, the mutants had to compete with wildtype flies for two summers in two consecutive years under outdoor conditions. We found that wildtype flies quickly outcompeted the mutant flies under the 24-h laboratory day and under outdoor conditions, but perl mutants persisted and even outnumbered the wildtype flies under the 29-h day in the laboratory. In contrast, pers and per0 mutants did not win against wildtype flies under the 19-h day and constant light, respectively. Our results demonstrate that wildtype flies have a clear fitness advantage in terms of fertility and offspring survival over the period mutants and – as revealed for perl mutants – this advantage appears maximal when the endogenous period resonates with the period of the environment. However, the experiments indicate that perl and pers persist at low frequencies in the population even under the 24-h day. This may be a consequence of a certain mating preference of wildtype and heterozygous females for mutant males and time differences in activity patterns between wildtype and mutants.
The link between multi‐host use and host switching in host–parasite interactions is a continuing area of debate. Lycaenid butterflies in the genus Maculinea, for example, exploit societies of different Myrmica ant species across their ranges, but there is only rare evidence that they simultaneously utilise multiple hosts at a local site, even where alternative hosts are present.
We present a simple population‐genetic model accounting for the proportion of two alternative hosts and the fitness of parasite genotypes on each host. In agreement with standard models, we conclude that simultaneous host use is possible whenever fitness of heterozygotes on alternative hosts is not too low.
We specifically focus on host‐shifting dynamics when the frequency of hosts changes. We find that (i) host shifting may proceed so rapidly that multiple host use is unlikely to be observed, (ii) back and forth transition in host use can exhibit a hysteresis loop, (iii) the parasites' host use may not be proportional to local host frequencies and be restricted to the rarer host under some conditions, and (iv) that a substantial decline in parasite abundance may typically precede a shift in host use.
We conclude that focusing not just on possible equilibrium conditions but also considering the dynamics of host shifting in non‐equilibrium situations may provide added insights into host–parasite systems.
Plant–pathogen interactions have been widely studied, but mostly from the site of the plant secondary defense. Less is known about the effects of pathogen infection on plant primary metabolism. The possibility to transform a fluorescing protein into prokaryotes is a promising phenotyping tool to follow a bacterial infection in plants in a noninvasive manner. In the present study, virulent and avirulent Pseudomonas syringae strains were transformed with green fluorescent protein (GFP) to follow the spread of bacteria in vivo by imaging Pulse-Amplitude-Modulation (PAM) fluorescence and conventional binocular microscopy. The combination of various wavelengths and filters allowed simultaneous detection of GFP-transformed bacteria, PAM chlorophyll fluorescence, and phenolic fluorescence from pathogen-infected plant leaves. The results show that fluorescence imaging allows spatiotemporal monitoring of pathogen spread as well as phenolic and chlorophyll fluorescence in situ, thus providing a novel means to study complex plant–pathogen interactions and relate the responses of primary and secondary metabolism to pathogen spread and multiplication. The study establishes a deeper understanding of imaging data and their implementation into disease screening.
Die Implantation eines Medizinprodukts in den menschlichen Körper ruft eine Immunreaktion hervor, die zur fibrösen Einkapselung führen kann. Makrophagen in direktem Kontakt mit der Oberfläche des Implantats erfassen sensorisch den Fremdkörper und übersetzten das Signal in die Freisetzung zahlreicher löslicher Mediatoren. Das generierte Entzündungsmilieu moduliert die Heilungsreaktion und kann zur Anreicherung von Fibroblasten sowie zur Erhöhung der Matrixsyntheserate in der Wundumgebung führen. Eine dichte fibröse Kapsel um ein Medizinprodukt beeinträchtigt den Ersatz von Körperstrukturen, das Unterstützen physiologischer Körperfunktionen sowie die Effizienz einer medizinischen Therapie. Zur Identifizierung potenzieller Biomaterialkandidaten mit optimalen Eigenschaften ist jedoch eine evidenzbasierte Entscheidungsfindung notwendig und diese wiederum muss durch geeignete Testmethoden unterstützt werden.
Zur Erfassung lokaler Effekte nach Implantation eines Biomaterials begründet die Komplexi-tät der ablaufenden Fremdkörperreaktion die Anwendung von Tiermodellen als Goldstandard. Die Eingliederung von in vitro Modellsystemen in standardisierte Testverfahren scheitert oft an der Verfügbarkeit validierter, verlässlicher und reproduzierbarer Methoden. Demnach ist kein standardisiertes in vitro Testverfahren beschrieben, das die komplexen dreidimensionalen Gewebsstrukturen während einer Fremdkörperreaktion abbildet und sich zur Testung über längere Kontaktphasen zwischen Blutkomponenten und Biomaterialien eignet. Jedoch können in vitro Testungen kosten- und zeiteffizienter sein und durch die Anwendung humaner Zellen eine höhere Übertragbarkeit auf den Menschen aufweisen. Zusätzlich adressiert die Präferenz zu in vitro Testmethoden den Aspekt „Reduzierung“ der 3R-Prinzipien „Replacement, Reduction, Refinement“ (Ersatz, Reduzierung, Verbesserung) von Russel und Burch (1959) zu einer bewussten und begründeten Anwendung von Tiermodellen in der Wissenschaft. Ziel von diesem Forschungsvorhaben war die Entwicklung von humanen in vitro Modellsystemen, die den Kontakt zu Blutkomponenten sowie die Reaktion des umliegenden Bindegewebes bei lokaler Implantation eines Biomaterials abbilden. Referenzmaterialien, deren Gewebsantwort nach Implantation in Tiere oder den Menschen bekannt ist, dienten als Validierungskriterium für die entwickelten Modellsysteme. Die Anreicherung von Zellen sowie die Bildung extrazellulärer Matrix in der Wundumgebung stellen wichtige Teilprozesse während einer Fremdkörperreaktion dar. Für beide Teilprozesse konnte in einem indirekten zellbasierten Modellsystem der Einfluss einer zellvermittelten Konditionierung wie die Freisetzung von löslichen Mediatoren durch materialadhärente Makrophagen auf die gerichtete Wanderung von Fibroblasten sowie den Umbau eines dreidimensionalen Bindegewebsmodells aufgezeigt werden.
Des Weiteren ließ sich das Freisetzungsprofil von Zytokinen durch materialständige Makrophagen unter verschiedenen Testbedingungen wie der Kontamination mit LPS, der Oberflächenbehandlung mit humanem Blutplasma und der Gegenwart von IL-4 bestimmen. Die anschließende vergleichende statistische Modellierung der generierten komplexen multifaktoriellen Datenmatrix ermöglichte die Übersetzung in eine Biomaterialbewertung. Dieses entwickelte Testverfahren eignete sich einerseits zur Validierung von in vitro Testbedingungen sowie andererseits zur Bewertung von Biomaterialien. Darüber hinaus konnte in einem dreidimensionalen Fremdkörpermodell die komplexe dreidimensionale Struktur der extrazellulären Matrix in einer Wunde durch die Kombination unterschiedlicher Zell- und Matrixkomponenten biomimetisch nachgebaut werden. Diese neuartigen dreidimensionalen Fremdkörpermodelle ermöglichten die Testung von Biomaterialien über längere Testphasen und können in anschließenden Studien angewandt werden, um dynamische Prozesse zu untersuchen. Zusammenfassend konnten in dieser Arbeit drei unterschiedliche Teststrategien entwickelt werden, die (I) die Bewertung von Teilprozessen ermöglichen, (II) die Identifizierung verlässlicher Testbedingungen unterstützen und (III) biomimetisch ein Wundgewebe abbilden. Wesentlich ist, dass biomimetisch ein dreidimensionales Gewebemodell entwickelt werden konnte, das eine verlässliche Unterscheidungskapazität zwischen Biomaterialien aufweist.
In contrast to the plasma membrane, the vacuole membrane has not yet been associated with electrical excitation of plants. Here, we show that mesophyll vacuoles from Arabidopsis sense and control the membrane potential essentially via the K\(^+\)-permeable TPC1 and TPK channels. Electrical stimuli elicit transient depolarization of the vacuole membrane that can last for seconds. Electrical excitability is suppressed by increased vacuolar Ca\(^{2+}\) levels. In comparison to wild type, vacuoles from the fou2 mutant, harboring TPC1 channels insensitive to luminal Ca\(^{2+}\), can be excited fully by even weak electrical stimuli. The TPC1-loss-of-function mutant tpc1-2 does not respond to electrical stimulation at all, and the loss of TPK1/TPK3-mediated K\(^{+}\) transport affects the duration of TPC1-dependent membrane depolarization. In combination with mathematical modeling, these results show that the vacuolar K\(^+\)-conducting TPC1 and TPK1/TPK3 channels act in concert to provide for Ca\(^{2+}\)- and voltage-induced electrical excitability to the central organelle of plant cells.
Thema dieser Thesis ist die Analyse sekretorischer Vesikelpools auf Ultrastrukturebene in unterschiedlichen biologischen Systemen. Der erste und zweite Teil dieser Arbeit fokussiert sich auf die Analyse synaptischer Vesikelpools in neuromuskulären Endplatten (NME) im Modellorganismus Caenorhabditis elegans. Dazu wurde Hochdruckgefrierung und Gefriersubstitution angewandt, um eine unverzügliche Immobilisation der Nematoden und somit eine Fixierung im nahezu nativen Zustand zu gewährleisten. Anschließend wurden dreidimensionale Aufnahmen der NME mittels Elektronentomographie erstellt. Im ersten Teil dieser Arbeit wurden junge adulte, wildtypische C. elegans Hermaphroditen mit Septin-Mutanten verglichen. Um eine umfassende Analyse mit hoher Stichprobenzahl zu ermöglichen und eine automatisierte Lösung für ähnliche Untersuchungen von Vesikelpools bereit zu stellen wurde eine Software namens 3D ART VeSElecT zur automatisierten Vesikelpoolanalyse entwickelt. Die Software besteht aus zwei Makros für ImageJ, eines für die Registrierung der Vesikel und eines zur Charakterisierung. Diese Trennung in zwei separate Schritte ermöglicht einen manuellen Verbesserungsschritt zum Entfernen falsch positiver Vesikel. Durch einen Vergleich mit manuell ausgewerteten Daten neuromuskulärer Endplatten von larvalen Stadien des Modellorganismus Zebrafisch (Danio rerio) konnte erfolgreich die Funktionalität der Software bewiesen werden. Die Analyse der neuromuskulären Endplatten in C. elegans ergab kleinere synaptische Vesikel und dichtere Vesikelpools in den Septin-Mutanten verglichen mit Wildtypen.
Im zweiten Teil der Arbeit wurden neuromuskulärer Endplatten junger adulter C. elegans Hermaphroditen mit Dauerlarven verglichen. Das Dauerlarvenstadium ist ein spezielles Stadium, welches durch widrige Umweltbedingungen induziert wird und in dem C. elegans über mehrere Monate ohne Nahrungsaufnahme überleben kann. Da hier der Vergleich der Abundanz zweier Vesikelarten, der „clear-core“-Vesikel (CCV) und der „dense-core“-Vesikel (DCV), im Fokus stand wurde eine Erweiterung von 3D ART VeSElecT entwickelt, die einen „Machine-Learning“-Algorithmus zur automatisierten Klassifikation der Vesikel integriert. Durch die Analyse konnten kleinere Vesikel, eine erhöhte Anzahl von „dense-core“-Vesikeln, sowie eine veränderte Lokalisation der DCV in Dauerlarven festgestellt werden.
Im dritten Teil dieser Arbeit wurde untersucht ob die für synaptische Vesikelpools konzipierte Software auch zur Analyse sekretorischer Vesikel in Thrombozyten geeignet ist. Dazu wurden zweidimensionale und dreidimensionale Aufnahmen am Transmissionselektronenmikroskop erstellt und verglichen. Die Untersuchung ergab, dass hierfür eine neue Methodik entwickelt werden muss, die zwar auf den vorherigen Arbeiten prinzipiell aufbauen kann, aber den besonderen Herausforderungen der Bilderkennung sekretorischer Vesikel aus Thrombozyten gerecht werden muss.
Inefficient vascularisation of solid tumours leads to the formation of oxygen and nutrient gradients. In order to mimic this specific feature of the tumour microenvironment, a multicellular tumour spheroid (SPH) culture system was used. These experiments were implemented in p53 isogenic colon cancer cell lines (HCT116 p53 +/+ and HCT116 p53-/-) since Tp53 has important regulatory functions in tumour metabolism. First, the characteristics of the cells cultured as monolayers and as spheroids were investigated by using RNA sequencing and metabolomics to compare gene expression and metabolic features of cells grown in different conditions. This analysis showed that certain features of gene expression found in tumours are also present in spheroids but not in monolayer cultures, including reduced proliferation and induction of hypoxia related genes. Moreover, comparison between the different genotypes revealed that the expression of genes involved in cholesterol homeostasis is induced in p53 deficient cells compared to p53 wild type cells and this difference was only detected in spheroids and tumour samples but not in monolayer cultures. In addition, it was established that loss of p53 leads to the induction of enzymes of the mevalonate pathway via activation of the transcription factor SREBP2, resulting in a metabolic rewiring that supports the generation of ubiquinone (coenzyme Q10). An adequate supply of ubiquinone was essential to support mitochondrial electron transport and pyrimidine biosynthesis in p53 deficient cancer cells under conditions of metabolic stress. Moreover, inhibition of the mevalonate pathway using statins selectively induced oxidative stress and apoptosis in p53 deficient colon cancer cells exposed to oxygen and nutrient deprivation. This was caused by ubiquinone being required for electron transfer by dihydroorotate dehydrogenase, an essential enzyme of the pyrimidine nucleotide biosynthesis pathway. Supplementation with exogenous nucleosides relieved the demand for electron transfer and restored viability of p53 deficient cancer cells under metabolic stress. Moreover, the mevalonate pathway was also essential for the synthesis of ubiquinone for nucleotide biosynthesis to support growth of intestinal tumour organoids. Together, these findings highlight the importance of the mevalonate pathway in cancer cells and provide molecular evidence for an enhanced sensitivity towards the inhibition of mitochondrial electron transfer in tumour-like metabolic environments.
Knowledge on how the timing of flowering is related to plant fitness and species interactions is crucial to understand consequences of phenological shifts as they occur under climate change. Early flowering plants may face advantages of low competition for pollinators and disadvantages of low pollinator abundances and unfavourable weather conditions. However, it is unknown how this trade-off changes over the season and how the timing affects reproductive success. On eight grasslands we recorded intra-seasonal changes in pollinators, co-flowering plants, weather conditions, flower visitation rates, floral longevity and seed set of Pulsatilla vulgaris. Although bee abundances and the number of pollinator-suitable hours were low at the beginning of the season, early flowers of P. vulgaris received higher flower visitation rates and estimated total number of bee visits than later flowers, which was positively related to seed set. Flower visitation rates decreased over time and with increasing number of co-flowering plants, which competed with P. vulgaris for pollinators. Low interspecific competition for pollinators seems to be a major driver for early flowering dates. Thus, non-synchronous temporal shifts of co-flowering plants as they may occur under climate warming can be expected to strongly affect plant-pollinator interactions and the fitness of the involved plants.
Climate warming has the potential to disrupt plant-pollinator interactions or to increase competition of co-flowering plants for pollinators, due to species-specific phenological responses to temperature. However, studies focusing on the effect of temperature on solitary bee emergence and the flowering onset of their food plants under natural conditions are still rare. We studied the effect of temperature on the phenology of the two spring bees Osmia cornuta and Osmia bicornis, by placing bee cocoons on eleven grasslands differing in mean site temperature. On seven grasslands, we additionally studied the effect of temperature on the phenology of the red-list plant Pulsatilla vulgaris, which was the first flowering plant, and of co-flowering plants with later flowering. With a warming of 0.1°C, the abundance-weighted mean emergence of O. cornuta males advanced by 0.4 days. Females of both species did not shift their emergence. Warmer temperatures advanced the abundance-weighted mean flowering of P. vulgaris by 1.3 days per 0.1°C increase, but did not shift flowering onset of co-flowering plants. Competition for pollinators between P. vulgaris and co-flowering plants does not increase within the studied temperature range. We demonstrate that temperature advances plant flowering more strongly than bee emergence suggesting an increased risk of pollinator limitation for the first flowers of P. vulgaris.
The central nervous system (CNS) barriers are highly specialized cellular barriers that promote brain homeostasis while restricting pathogen and toxin entry. The primary cellular constituent regulating pathogen entry in most of these brain barriers is the brain endothelial cell (BEC) that exhibits properties that allow for tight regulation of CNS entry. Bacterial meningoencephalitis is a serious infection of the CNS and occurs when bacteria can cross specialized brain barriers and cause inflammation. Models have been developed to understand the bacterial – BEC interaction that lead to pathogen crossing into the CNS, however, these have been met with challenges due to these highly specialized BEC phenotypes. This perspective provides a brief overview and outlook of the in vivo and in vitro models currently being used to study bacterial brain penetration, and opinion on improved models for the future.
Neurodevelopmental disorders, including attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are disorders of mostly unknown etiopathogenesis, for which both genetic and environmental influences are expected to contribute to the phenotype observed in patients. Changes at all levels of brain function, from network connectivity between brain areas, over neuronal survival, synaptic connectivity and axonal growth, down to molecular changes and epigenetic modifications are suspected to play a key roles in these diseases, resulting in life-long behavioural changes.
Genome-wide association as well as copy-number variation studies have linked cadherin-13 (CDH13) as a novel genetic risk factor to neuropsychiatric and neurodevelopmental disorders. CDH13 is highly expressed during embryonic brain development, as well as in the adult brain, where it is present in regions including the hippocampus, striatum and thalamus (among others) and is upregulated in response to chronic stress exposure. It is however unclear how CDH13 interacts with environmentally relevant cues, including stressful triggers, in the formation of long-lasting behavioural and molecular changes. It is currently unknown how the environment influences CDH13 and which long term changes in behaviour and gene expression are caused by their interaction. This work therefore investigates the interaction between CDH13 deficiency and neonatal maternal separation (MS) in mice with the aim to elucidate the function of CDH13 and its role in the response to early-life stress (ELS).
For this purpose, mixed litters of wild-type (Cdh13+/+), heterozygous (Cdh13+/-) and homozygous knockout (Cdh13-/-) mice were maternally separated from postnatal day 1 (PN1) to postnatal day 14 (PN14) for 3 hours each day (180MS; PN1-PN14). In a first series of experiments, these mice were subjected to a battery of behavioural tests starting at 8 weeks of age in order to assess motor activity, memory functions as well as measures of anxiety. Subsequently, expression of RNA in various brain regions was measured using quantitativ real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). A second cohort of mice was exposed to the same MS procedure, but was not behaviourally tested, to assess molecular changes in hippocampus using RNA sequencing.
Behavioural analysis revealed that MS had an overall anxiolytic-like effect, with mice after MS spending more time in the open arms of the elevated-plus-maze (EPM) and the light compartment in the light-dark box (LDB). As a notable exception, Cdh13-/- mice did not show an increase of time spent in the light compartment after MS compared to Cdh13+/+ and Cdh13+/- MS mice. During the Barnes-maze learning task, mice of most groups showed a similar ability in learning the location of the escape hole, both in terms of primary latency and primary errors. Cdh13-/- control (CTRL) mice however committed more primary errors than Cdh13-/- MS mice. In the contextual fear conditioning (cFC) test, Cdh13-/- mice showed more freezing responses during the extinction recall, indicating a reduced extinction of fear memory. In the step-down test, an impulsivity task, Cdh13-/- mice had a tendency to wait longer before stepping down from the platform, indicative of more hesitant behaviour. In the same animals, qRT-PCR of several brain areas revealed changes in the GABAergic and glutamatergic systems, while also highlighting changes in the gatekeeper enzyme Glykogensynthase-Kinase 3 (Gsk3a), both in relation to Cdh13 deficiency and MS. Results from the RNA sequencing study and subsequent gene-set enrichment analysis revealed changes in adhesion and developmental genes due to Cdh13 deficiency, while also highlighting a strong link between CDH13 and endoplasmatic reticulum function. In addition, some results suggest that MS increased pro-survival pathways, while a gene x environment analysis showed alterations in apoptotic pathways and migration, as well as immune factors and membrane metabolism. An analysis of the overlap between gene and environment, as well as their interaction, highlighted an effect on cell adhesion factors, underscoring their importance for adaptation to the environment.
Overall, the stress model resulted in increased stress resilience in Cdh13+/+ and Cdh13+/- mice, a change absent in Cdh13-/- mice, suggesting a role of CDH13 during programming and adaptation to early-life experiences, that can results in long-lasting consequences on brain functions and associated behaviours. These changes were also visible in the RNA sequencing, where key pathways for cell-cell adhesion, neuronal survival and cell-stress adaptation were altered. In conclusion, these findings further highlight the role of CDH13 during brain development, while also shedding light on its function in the adaptation and response during (early life) environmental challenges.
miR-221 is regarded as an oncogene in many malignancies, and miR-221-mediated resistance towards TRAIL was one of the first oncogenic roles shown for this small noncoding RNA. In contrast, miR-221 is downregulated in prostate cancer (PCa), thereby implying a tumour suppressive function. By using proliferation and apoptosis assays, we show a novel feature of miR-221 in PCa cells: instead of inducing TRAIL resistance, miR-221 sensitized cells towards TRAIL-induced proliferation inhibition and apoptosis induction. Partially responsible for this effect was the interferon-mediated gene signature, which among other things contained an endogenous overexpression of the TRAIL encoding gene TNFSF10. This TRAIL-friendly environment was provoked by downregulation of the established miR-221 target gene SOCS3. Moreover, we introduced PIK3R1 as a target gene of miR-221 in PCa cells. Proliferation assays showed that siRNA-mediated downregulation of SOCS3 and PIK3R1 mimicked the effect of miR-221 on TRAIL sensitivity. Finally, Western blotting experiments confirmed lower amounts of phospho-Akt after siRNA-mediated downregulation of PIK3R1 in PC3 cells. Our results further support the tumour suppressing role of miR-221 in PCa, since it sensitises PCa cells towards TRAIL by regulating the expression of the oncogenes SOCS3 and PIK3R1. Given the TRAIL-inhibiting effect of miR-221 in various cancer entities, our results suggest that the influence of miR-221 on TRAIL-mediated apoptosis is highly context- and entity-dependent.
The knee joint is a complex composite joint containing the C-shaped wedge-like menisci composed of fibrocartilage. Due to their complex composition and structure, they provide mechanical resilience to the knee joint protecting the articular cartilage. Because of the limited repair potential, meniscal injuries do not only affect the meniscus itself but also lead to altered joint homeostasis and inevitably to secondary osteoarthritis.
The meniscus was characterized focusing on its anatomy, structure and meniscal markers such as aggrecan, collagen type I (Col I) and Col II. The components relevant for meniscus tissue engineering, namely cells, Col I scaffolds, biochemical and biomechanical stimuli were studied. Meniscal cells (MCs) were isolated from meniscus, mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) from bone marrow and dermal microvascular endothelial cells (d-mvECs) from foreskin biopsies. For the human (h) meniscus model, wedge-shape compression of a hMSC-laden Col I gel was successfully established. During three weeks of static culture, the biochemical stimulus transforming growth factor beta-3 (TGF beta-3) led to a compact collagen structure. On day 21, this meniscus model showed high metabolic activity and matrix remodeling as confirmed by matrix metalloproteinases detection. The fibrochondrogenic properties were illustrated by immunohistochemical detection of meniscal markers, significant GAG/DNA increase and increased compressive properties. For further improvement, biomechanical stimulation systems by compression and hydrostatic pressure were designed. As one vascularization approach, direct stimulation with ciclopirox olamine (CPX) significantly increased sprouting of hd-mvEC spheroids even in absence of auxiliary cells such as MSCs. Second, a cell sheet composed of hMSCs and hd-mvECs was fabricated by temperature triggered cell sheet engineering and transferred onto the wedge-shaped meniscus model. Third, a biological vascularized scaffold (BioVaSc-TERM) was re-endothelialized with hd-mvECs providing a viable vascularized network. The vascularized BioVaSc-TERM was suggested as wrapping scaffold of the meniscus model by using two suture techniques, the all-inside-repair (AIR) for the posterior horn, and the outside-in-refixation (OIR) for the anterior horn and the middle part.
This meniscus model for replacing torn menisci is a promising approach to be further optimized regarding vascularization, biochemical and biomechanical stimuli.
Development and proof of concept of a biological vascularized cell‐based drug delivery system
(2019)
A major therapeutic challenge is the increasing incidence of chronic disorders.
The persistent impairment or loss of tissue function requires constitutive on‐demand
drug availability optimally achieved by a drug delivery system ideally directly connected
to the blood circulation of the patient. However, despite the efforts and achievements in
cell‐based therapies and the generation of complex and customized cell‐specific
microenvironments, the generation of functional tissue is still unaccomplished.
This study demonstrates the capability to generate a vascularized platform technology to
potentially overcome the supply restraints for graft development and clinical application
with immediate anastomosis to the blood circulation.
The ability to decellularize segments of the rat intestine while preserving the ECM for
subsequent reendothelialization was proven. The reestablishment of a functional
arteriovenous perfusion circuit enabled the supply of co‐cultured cells capable to replace
the function of damaged tissue or to serve as a drug delivery system. During in vitro
studies, the applicability of the developed miniaturized biological vascularized scaffold
(mBioVaSc‐TERM®) was demonstrated. While indicating promising results in short term
in vivo studies, long term implantations revealed current limitations for the translation
into clinical application. The gained insights will impact further improvements of quality
and performance of this promising platform technology for future regenerative therapies.
Articular cartilage lesions that occur upon intensive sport, trauma or degenerative disease represent a severe therapeutic problem. At present, osteoarthritis is the most common joint disease worldwide, affecting around 10% of men and 18% of women over 60 years of age (302). The poor self-regeneration capacity of cartilage and the lack of efficient therapeutic treatment options to regenerate durable articular cartilage tissue, provide the rationale for the development of new treatment options based on cartilage tissue engineering approaches (281). The integrated use of cells, biomaterials and growth factors to guide tissue development has the potential to provide functional substitutes of lost or damaged tissues (2,3). For the regeneration of cartilage, the availability of mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) or their recruitment into the defect site is fundamental (281). Due to their high proliferation capacity, the possibility to differentiate into chondrocytes and their potential to attract other progenitor cells into the defect site, bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stromal cells (BMSCs) are still regarded as an attractive cell source for cartilage tissue engineering (80). However, in order to successfully engineer cartilage tissue, a better understanding of basic principles of developmental processes and microenvironmental cues that guide chondrogenesis is required.
Expansion microscopy (ExM) is a novel tool to improve the resolution of fluorescence-based microscopy that has not yet been used to visualize intracellular pathogens. Here we show the expansion of the intracellular pathogen Chlamydia trachomatis, enabling to differentiate its two distinct forms, catabolic active reticulate bodies (RB) and infectious elementary bodies (EB), on a conventional confocal microscope. We show that ExM enables the possibility to precisely locate chlamydial effector proteins, such as CPAF or Cdu1, within and outside of the chlamydial inclusion. Thus, we claim that ExM offers the possibility to address a broad range of questions and may be useful for further research on various intracellular pathogens.
Das humane Schädeldach besteht aus fünf Schädelplatten, die durch intramembranöse Ossifikation entstehen. Wenn diese in der Embryonalentwicklung aufeinandertreffen, bilden sich Schädelnähte aus, die eine Fusion der Schädelplatten verhindern und damit ein Schädelwachstum parallel zu Gehirnentwicklung ermöglichen. Für diesen Prozess ist eine Balance aus Zellproliferation und Differenzierung nötig, deren Aufrechterhaltung wiederum durch eine komplexe Regulation von verschiedenen Signalwegen gewährleistet wird. Störungen in diesem regulatorischen System können zu einer vorzeitigen Fusion der Schädelplatten, Kraniosynostose genannt, führen. Die Kraniosynostose ist eine der häufigsten kraniofazialen Fehlbildungen beim Menschen. Durch kompensatorisches Wachstum an den nicht fusionierten Suturen entstehen charakteristische Schädeldeformationen, die sekundär einen erhöhten intrakranialen Druck zur Folge haben können. Eine vorzeitige Fusion der Suturen kann sowohl isoliert als auch syndromal zusammen mit weiteren klinischen Auffälligkeiten vorliegen. Bisher sind über 150 verschiedene Kraniosynostose Syndrome beschrieben und insgesamt 25-30% aller Kraniosynostose Patienten sind von einer syndromalen Form betroffen. Da die klinischen Merkmale der Kraniosynostose Syndrome variabel sind und zum Teil überlappen, ist eine klare klinische Diagnose häufig erschwert. Sowohl Umwelteinflüsse als auch genetische Veränderungen können die Ursache für Kraniosynostosen sein. Vor allem bei syndromalen Kraniosynostosen wurden genetische Veränderungen, wie beispielsweise Mutationen in den Genen FGFR2, FGFR3, TWIST1 und EFNB1, identifiziert. Darüber hinaus wurden chromosomale Veränderungen wie partielle Monosomien von 7p, 9p oder 11p sowie partielle Trisomien von 5q, 13q oder 15q mit Kraniosynostose assoziiert. Trotzdem ist in über 50% der Fälle die genetische Ursache unbekannt und die Pathogenese von Kraniosynostosen noch nicht vollständig geklärt.
Ziel dieser Arbeit war es neue genetische Ursachen bei Kraniosynostose Patienten zu identifizieren und so zur Aufklärung der Pathogenese beizutragen. Es wurde die genomische DNA von 83 Patienten molekulargenetisch durch Mikroarray basierte vergleichende Genomhybridisierung (Array-CGH) oder durch ein speziell entworfenes Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) Genpanel untersucht. Bei 30% der Patienten konnte eine potentiell pathogene Veränderung identifiziert werden. Davon waren 23% chromosomale Aberrationen wie unbalancierte Translokationen, isolierte interstitielle Verluste und ein Zugewinn an genomischen Material. Bei zwei Patienten wurden unbalancierte Translokationen mit partieller 5q Trisomie nachgewiesen. Das Gen MSX2 liegt innerhalb des duplizierten Bereichs, sodass möglicherweise eine MSX2 Überexpression vorliegt. Für ein normales Schädelwachstum ist jedoch die richtige Menge an MSX2 kritisch. Des Weiteren wurde eine partielle Deletion von TCF12 detektiert, die in einer Haploinsuffizienz von TCF12 resultiert. TCF12 Mutationen sind mit Koronarnahtsynosten assoziiert. In einem anderen Fall lag das Gen FGF10 innerhalb der duplizierten 5p15.1-p12 Region. Das Gen kodiert für einen Liganden des FGF Signalwegs und wurde bisher noch nicht mit Kraniosynostose assoziiert. Aufgrund dessen wurden Analysen im Tiermodell Danio rerio durchgeführt. Eine simulierte Überexpression durch Injektion der fgf10a mRNA in das 1-Zell Stadium führte zu schweren Gehirn-, Herz- und Augendefekten.
Mittels NGS wurden 77% der potentiell pathogenen genetischen Veränderungen identifiziert. Hierfür wurde in dieser Arbeit ein Genpanel erstellt, das 68 Gene umfasst. Es wurden sowohl bekannte Kraniosynostose- als auch Kandidaten-Gene sowie Gene, die mit der Ossifikation assoziiert sind, in die Analyse eingeschlossen. Das Genpanel wurde durch die Sequenzierung von fünf Kontrollproben mit bekannten Mutationen erfolgreich validiert. Anschließend wurde die genomische DNA von 66 Patienten analysiert. Es konnten 20 (potentiell) pathogene Varianten identifiziert werden. Neben bereits bekannten Mutationen in den Genen FGFR1, FGFR2, FGFR3 und TWIST1, konnten zusätzlich 8 neue, potentiell pathogene Varianten in den Genen ERF, MEGF8, MSX2, PTCH1 und TCF12 identifiziert werden. Die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit tragen dazu bei das Mutationsspektrum dieser Gene zu erweitern. Bei zwei der Varianten handelte es sich um potentielle Spleißvarianten. Für diese konnte in einem in vitro Spleißsystem gezeigt werden, dass sie eine Änderung des Spleißmusters bewirken. Der Nachweis von zwei seltenen Varianten in den Genen FGFR2 und HUWE1 hat außerdem dazu beigetragen die Pathogenität dieser spezifischen Varianten zu bekräftigen. Eine Variante in POR, die aufgrund bioinformatischer Analysen als potentiell pathogen bewertet wurde, wurde nach der Segregationsanalyse als wahrscheinlich benigne eingestuft. Zusammenfassend konnten bei etwa einem Drittel der Patienten, die mit dem NGS Genpanel analysiert wurden, eine genetische Ursache identifiziert werden. Dieses Genpanel stellt somit ein effizientes diagnostisches Tool dar, das zukünftig in der genetischen Routine-Diagnostik von Kraniosynostose-Patienten eingesetzt werden kann. Die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit zeigen, dass sowohl eine Untersuchung auf CNVs als auch auf Sequenzänderungen bei Kraniosynostose Patienten sinnvoll ist.
The alarming increase in the magnitude and spatiotemporal patterns of changes in composition, structure and function of forest ecosystems during recent years calls for enhanced cross-border mitigation and adaption measures, which strongly entail intensified research to understand the underlying processes in the ecosystems as well as their dynamics. Remote sensing data and methods are nowadays the main complementary sources of synoptic, up-to-date and objective information to support field observations in forest ecology. In particular, analysis of three-dimensional (3D) remote sensing data is regarded as an appropriate complement, since they are hypothesized to resemble the 3D character of most forest attributes. Following their use in various small-scale forest structural analyses over the past two decades, these sources of data are now on their way to be integrated in novel applications in fields like citizen science, environmental impact assessment, forest fire analysis, and biodiversity assessment in remote areas. These and a number of other novel applications provide valuable material for the Forests special issue “3D Remote Sensing Applications in Forest Ecology: Composition, Structure and Function”, which shows the promising future of these technologies and improves our understanding of the potentials and challenges of 3D remote sensing in practical forest ecology worldwide.
The plasma membrane is one of the most thoroughly studied and at the same time most complex, diverse, and least understood cellular structures. Its function is determined by the molecular composition as well as the spatial arrangement of its components. Even after decades of extensive membrane research and the proposal of dozens of models and theories, the structural organization of plasma membranes remains largely unknown. Modern imaging tools such as super-resolution fluorescence microscopy are one of the most efficient techniques in life sciences and are widely used to study the spatial arrangement and quantitative behavior of biomolecules in fixed and living cells. In this work, direct stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy (dSTORM) was used to investigate the structural distribution of mem-brane components with virtually molecular resolution. Key issues are different preparation and staining strategies for membrane imaging as well as localization-based quantitative analyses of membrane molecules.
An essential precondition for the spatial and quantitative analysis of membrane components is the prevention of photoswitching artifacts in reconstructed localization microscopy images. Therefore, the impact of irradiation intensity, label density and photoswitching behavior on the distribution of plasma membrane and mitochondrial membrane proteins in dSTORM images was investigated. It is demonstrated that the combination of densely labeled plasma membranes and inappropriate photoswitching rates induces artificial membrane clusters. Moreover, inhomogeneous localization distributions induced by projections of three-dimensional membrane structures such as microvilli and vesicles are prone to generate artifacts in images of biological membranes. Alternative imaging techniques and ways to prevent artifacts in single-molecule localization microscopy are presented and extensively discussed.
Another central topic addresses the spatial organization of glycosylated components covering the cell membrane. It is shown that a bioorthogonal chemical reporter system consisting of modified monosaccharide precursors and organic fluorophores can be used for specific labeling of membrane-associated glycoproteins and –lipids. The distribution of glycans was visualized by dSTORM showing a homogeneous molecule distribution on different mammalian cell lines without the presence of clusters. An absolute number of around five million glycans per cell was estimated and the results show that the combination of metabolic labeling, click chemistry, and single-molecule localization microscopy can be efficiently used to study cell surface glycoconjugates.
In a third project, dSTORM was performed to investigate low-expressing receptors on cancer cells which can act as targets in personalized immunotherapy. Primary multiple myeloma cells derived from the bone marrow of several patients were analyzed for CD19 expression as potential target for chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-modified T cells. Depending on the patient, 60–1,600 CD19 molecules per cell were quantified and functional in vitro tests demonstrate that the threshold for CD19 CAR T recognition is below 100 CD19 molecules per target cell. Results are compared with flow cytometry data, and the important roles of efficient labeling and appropriate control experiments are discussed.
Studying how cambial age and axial height affects wood anatomical traits may improve our understanding of xylem hydraulics, heartwood formation and axial growth. Radial strips were collected from six different heights (0–11.3 m) along the main trunk of three Manchurian catalpa (Catalpa bungei) trees, yielding 88 samples. In total, thirteen wood anatomical vessel and fiber traits were observed usinglight microscopy (LM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and linear models were used to analyse the combined effect of axial height, cambial age and their interaction. Vessel diameter differed by about one order of magnitude between early- and latewood, and increased significantly with both cambial age and axial height in latewood, while it was positively affected by cambial age and independent of height in earlywood. Vertical position further had a positive effect on earlywood vessel density, and negative effects on fibre wall thickness, wall thickness to diameter ratio and length. Cambial age had positive effects on the pit membrane diameter and vessel element length, while the annual diameter growth decreased with both cambial age and axial position. In contrast, early- and latewood fiber diameter were unaffected by both cambial age and axial height. We further observed an increasing amount of tyloses from sapwood to heartwood, accompanied by an increase of warty layers and amorphous deposits on cell walls, bordered pit membranes and pit apertures. This study highlights the significant effects of cambial age and vertical position on xylem anatomical traits, and confirms earlier work that cautions to take into account xylem spatial position when interpreting wood anatomical structures, and thus, xylem hydraulic functioning.
Fin development and regeneration are complex biological processes that are highly relevant in teleost fish. They share genetic factors, signaling pathways and cellular properties to coordinate formation of regularly shaped extremities. Especially correct tissue structure defined by extracellular matrix (ECM) formation is essential. Gene expression and protein localization studies demonstrated expression of fndc3a (fibronectin domain containing protein 3a) in both developing and regenerating caudal fins of zebrafish (Danio rerio). We established a hypomorphic fndc3a mutant line (fndc3a\(^{wue1/wue1}\)) via CRISPR/Cas9, exhibiting phenotypic malformations and changed gene expression patterns during early stages of median fin fold development. These developmental effects are mostly temporary, but result in a fraction of adults with permanent tail fin deformations. In addition, caudal fin regeneration in adult fndc3a\(^{wue1/wue1}\) mutants is hampered by interference with actinotrichia formation and epidermal cell organization. Investigation of the ECM implies that loss of epidermal tissue structure is a common cause for both of the observed defects. Our results thereby provide a molecular link between these developmental processes and foreshadow Fndc3a as a novel temporal regulator of epidermal cell properties during extremity development and regeneration in zebrafish.
In mammals the melanocortin 4 receptor (Mc4r) signaling system has been mainly associated with the regulation of appetite and energy homeostasis. In fish of the genus Xiphophorus (platyfish and swordtails) puberty onset is genetically determined by a single locus, which encodes the mc4r. Wild populations of Xiphophorus are polymorphic for early and late-maturing individuals. Copy number variation of different mc4r alleles is responsible for the difference in puberty onset. To answer whether this is a special adaptation of the Mc4r signaling system in the lineage of Xiphophorus or a more widely conserved mechanism in teleosts, we studied the role of Mc4r in reproductive biology of medaka (Oryzias latipes), a close relative to Xiphophorus and a well-established model to study gonadal development. To understand the potential role of Mc4r in medaka, we characterized the major features of the Mc4r signaling system (mc4r, mrap2, pomc, agrp1). In medaka, all these genes are expressed before hatching. In adults, they are mainly expressed in the brain. The transcript of the receptor accessory protein mrap2 co-localizes with mc4r in the hypothalamus in adult brains indicating a conserved function of modulating Mc4r signaling. Comparing growth and puberty between wild-type and mc4r knockout medaka revealed that absence of Mc4r does not change puberty timing but significantly delays hatching. Embryonic development of knockout animals is retarded compared to wild-types. In conclusion, the Mc4r system in medaka is involved in regulation of growth rather than puberty.
In plants, antimicrobial immune responses involve the cellular release of anions and are responsible for the closure of stomatal pores. Detection of microbe-associated molecular patterns (MAMPs) by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) induces currents mediated via slow-type (S-type) anion channels by a yet not understood mechanism. Here, we show that stomatal closure to fungal chitin is conferred by the major PRRs for chitin recognition, LYK5 and CERK1, the receptor-like cytoplasmic kinase PBL27, and the SLAH3 anion channel. PBL27 has the capacity to phosphorylate SLAH3, of which S127 and S189 are required to activate SLAH3. Full activation of the channel entails CERK1, depending on PBL27. Importantly, both S127 and S189 residues of SLAH3 are required for chitin-induced stomatal closure and anti-fungal immunity at the whole leaf level. Our results demonstrate a short signal transduction module from MAMP recognition to anion channel activation, and independent of ABA-induced SLAH3 activation.
Die Risikobewertung von Chemikalien ist für die öffentliche Gesundheit von entschei-dender Bedeutung, weshalb strenge Testverfahren zu deren toxikologischer Begutach-tung angewandt werden. Die ursprünglich tierbasierten Testverfahren werden aufgrund von neuen wissenschaftlichen Erkenntnissen und wegen ökonomischer Ineffizienz sowie ethischer Fragwürdigkeit immer mehr durch alternative Methoden ohne Tiermodelle ersetzt. Für den toxikologischen Endpunkt der Augenreizung wurden bereits die ersten alternativen Testsysteme auf der Basis von ex vivo- oder in vitro-Modellen entwickelt. Jedoch ist bis dato kein alternatives Testsystem in der Lage, das gesamte Spektrum der verschiedenen Kategorien der Augenreizungen nach dem global harmonisierten System zur Einstufung und Kennzeichnung von Chemikalien (GHS) vorherzusagen und damit den tierbasierten Draize-Augenreizungstest vollends zu ersetzen. Gründe hierfür sind fehlende physiologische Merkmale im Modell sowie eine destruktive Analysemethode.
Aufgrund dessen wurden in dieser Studie die Hypothesen getestet, ob ein verbessertes In-vitro-Modell oder eine zerstörungsfreie, hochsensitive Analysemethode die Vorher-sagekraft des Augenreizungstests verbessern können. Dafür wurden zunächst neue Mo-delle aus humanen Hornhaut- und Hautepithelzellen entwickelt. Die Modelle aus pri-mären cornealen Zellen zeigten eine gewebespezifische Expression der Marker Zytokera-tin 3 und 12 sowie Loricrin. In beiden Modellen konnte durch die Verkürzung der Kul-turdauer die Ausbildung einer Hornschicht verhindert werden. Die Modelle wiesen dadurch eine sensiblere Barriere vergleichbar der nativen Cornea auf. Darüber hinaus konnte durch die chemische Quervernetzung mit Polyethylenglykolsuccinimidylglutara-tester ein transparentes, nicht kontrahierendes Stroma-Äquivalent etabliert werden. Der Stroma-Ersatz konnte zur Generierung von Hemi- und Voll-Cornea-Äquivalenten einge-setzt werden und lieferte somit erste Ansatzpunkte für die Rekonstruktion der nativen Hornhaut.
Parallel dazu konnte ein zerstörungsfreies Analyseverfahren basierend auf der Impe-danzspektroskopie entwickelt werden, das wiederholte Messungen der Gewebeintegri-tät zulässt. Zur verbesserten Messung der Barriere in dreidimensionalen Modelle wurde hierfür ein neuer Parameter, der transepitheliale elektrische Widerstand (TEER) bei der Frequenz von 1000 Hz, der TEER1000 Hz definiert, der eine genauere Aussage über die Integrität der Modelle zulässt. Durch die Kombination der entwickelten cornealen Epithelzellmodelle mit der TEER1000 Hz-Messung konnte die Prädikitivität des Augenrei-zungstests auf 78 - 100 % erhöht werden. Von besonderer Bedeutung ist dabei, dass die nicht destruktive Messung des TEER1000 Hz zum ersten Mal erlaubte, die Persistenz von Irritationen durch wiederholte Messungen in einem in vitro-Modell zu erkennen und somit die GHS-Kategorie 1 von GHS-Kategorie 2 zu unterscheiden. Der wissenschaftli-che Gewinn dieser Forschungsarbeit ist ein neues Testverfahren, das alle GHS-Kategorien in einem einzigen in vitro-Test nachweisen und den Draize-Augenreizungstest gänzlich ersetzen kann.
Behavioral adaptation to environmental changes is crucial for animals’ survival. The prediction of the outcome of one owns action, like finding reward or avoiding punishment, requires recollection of past experiences and comparison with current situation, and adjustment of behavioral responses. The process of memory acquisition is called learning, and the Drosophila larva came up to be an excellent model organism for studying the neural mechanisms of memory formation. In Drosophila, associative memories are formed, stored and expressed in the mushroom bodies. In the last years, great progress has been made in uncovering the anatomical architecture of these brain structures, however there is still a lack of knowledge about the functional connectivity.
Dopamine plays essential roles in learning processes, as dopaminergic neurons mediate information about the presence of rewarding and punishing stimuli to the mushroom bodies. In the following work, the function of a newly identified anatomical connection from the mushroom bodies to rewarding dopaminergic neurons was dissected. A recurrent feedback signaling within the neuronal network was analyzed by simultaneous genetic manipulation of the mushroom body Kenyon cells and dopaminergic neurons from the primary protocerebral anterior (pPAM) cluster, and learning assays were performed in order to unravel the impact of the Kenyon cells-to-pPAM neurons feedback loop on larval memory formation.
In a substitution learning assay, simultaneous odor exposure paired with optogenetic activation of Kenyon cells in fruit fly larvae in absence of a rewarding stimulus resulted in formation of an appetitive memory, whereas no learning behavior was observed when pPAM neurons were ablated in addition to the KC activation. I argue that the activation of Kenyon cells may induce an internal signal that mimics reward exposure by feedback activation of the rewarding dopaminergic neurons. My data further suggests that the Kenyon cells-to-pPAM communication relies on peptidergic signaling via short neuropeptide F and underlies memory stabilization.
Zn\(^{2+}\) deficiency in the human population is frequent in underdeveloped countries. Worldwide, approximatively 2 billion people consume Zn\(^{2+}\)-deficient diets, accounting for 1–4% of deaths each year, mainly in infants with a compromised immune system. Depending on the severity of Zn\(^{2+}\) deficiency, clinical symptoms are associated with impaired wound healing, alopecia, diarrhea, poor growth, dysfunction of the immune and nervous system with congenital abnormalities and bleeding disorders. Poor nutritional Zn\(^{2+}\) status in patients with metastatic squamous cell carcinoma or with advanced non-Hodgkin lymphoma, was accompanied by cutaneous bleeding and platelet dysfunction. Forcing Zn\(^{2+}\) uptake in the gut using different nutritional supplementation of Zn\(^{2+}\) could ameliorate many of these pathological symptoms in humans. Feeding adult rodents with a low Zn\(^{2+}\) diet caused poor platelet aggregation and increased bleeding tendency, thereby attracting great scientific interest in investigating the role of Zn\(^{2+}\) in hemostasis. Storage protein metallothionein maintains or releases Zn\(^{2+}\) in the cytoplasm, and the dynamic change of this cytoplasmic Zn\(^{2+}\) pool is regulated by the redox status of the cell. An increase of labile Zn\(^{2+}\) pool can be toxic for the cells, and therefore cytoplasmic Zn\(^{2+}\) levels are tightly regulated by several Zn\(^{2+}\) transporters located on the cell surface and also on the intracellular membrane of Zn\(^{2+}\) storage organelles, such as secretory vesicles, endoplasmic reticulum or Golgi apparatus. Although Zn\(^{2+}\) is a critical cofactor for more than 2000 transcription factors and 300 enzymes, regulating cell differentiation, proliferation, and basic metabolic functions of the cells, the molecular mechanisms of Zn\(^{2+}\) transport and the physiological role of Zn\(^{2+}\) store in megakaryocyte and platelet function remain elusive. In this review, we summarize the contribution of extracellular or intracellular Zn\(^{2+}\) to megakaryocyte and platelet function and discuss the consequences of dysregulated Zn\(^{2+}\) homeostasis in platelet-related diseases by focusing on thrombosis, ischemic stroke and storage pool diseases.
Allopolyploid plants are long known to be subject to a homoeolog expression bias of varying degree. The same phenomenon was only much later suspected to occur also in animals based on studies of single selected genes in an allopolyploid vertebrate, the Iberian fish Squalius alburnoides. Consequently, this species became a good model for understanding the evolution of gene expression regulation in polyploid vertebrates. Here, we analyzed for the first time genome-wide allele-specific expression data from diploid and triploid hybrids of S. alburnoides and compared homoeolog expression profiles of adult livers and of juveniles. Co-expression of alleles from both parental genomic types was observed for the majority of genes, but with marked homoeolog expression bias, suggesting homoeolog specific reshaping of expression level patterns in hybrids. Complete silencing of one allele was also observed irrespective of ploidy level, but not transcriptome wide as previously speculated. Instead, it was found only in a restricted number of genes, particularly ones with functions related to mitochondria and ribosomes. This leads us to hypothesize that allelic silencing may be a way to overcome intergenomic gene expression interaction conflicts, and that homoeolog expression bias may be an important mechanism in the achievement of sustainable genomic interactions, mandatory to the success of allopolyploid systems, as in S. alburnoides.
Myocardial infarction (MI) is a major cause of health problems and is among the leading deadly ending diseases. Accordingly, regenerating functional myocardial tissue and/or cardiac repair by stem cells is one of the most desired aims worldwide. Indeed, the human heart serves as an ideal target for regenerative intervention, because the capacity of the adult myocardium to restore itself after injury or infarct is limited. Thus, identifying new sources of tissue resident adult stem or progenitor cells with cardiovascular potential would help to establish more sophisticated therapies in order to either prevent cardiac failure or to achieve a functional repair. Ongoing research worldwide in this field is focusing on a) induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells, b) embryonic stem (ES) cells and c) adult stem cells (e. g. mesenchymal stem cells) as well as cardiac fibroblasts or myofibroblasts. However, thus far, these efforts did not result in therapeutic strategies that were transferable into the clinical management of MI and heart failure. Hence, identifying endogenous and more cardiac-related sources of stem cells capable of differentiating into mature cardiomyocytes would open promising new therapeutic opportunities. The working hypothesis of this thesis is that the vascular wall serves as a niche for cardiogenic stem cells. In recent years, various groups have identified different types of progenitors or mesenchymal stem cell-like cells in the adventitia and sub-endothelial zone of the adult vessel wall, the so called vessel wall-resident stem cells (VW-SCs). Considering the fact that heart muscle tissue contains blood vessels in very high density, the physiological relevance of VW-SCs for the myocardium can as yet only be assumed. The aim of the present work is to study whether a subset of VW-SCs might have the capacity to differentiate into cardiomyocyte-like cells. This assumption was challenged using adult mouse aorta-derived cells cultivated in different media and treated with selected factors. The presented results reveal the generation of spontaneously beating cardiomyocyte-like cells using specific media conditions without any genetic manipulation. The cells reproducibly started beating at culture days 8-10. Further analyses revealed that in contrast to several publications reporting the Sca-1+ cells as cardiac progenitors the Sca-1- fraction of aortic wall-derived VW-SCs reproducibly delivered beating cells in culture. Similar to mature cardiomyocytes the beating cells developed sarcomeric structures indicated by the typical cross striated staining pattern upon immunofluorescence analysis detecting α-sarcomeric actinin (α-SRA) and electron microscopic analysis. These analyses also showed the formation of sarcoplasmic reticulum which serves as calcium store. Correspondingly, the aortic wall-derived beating cardiomyocyte-like cells (Ao-bCMs) exhibited calcium oscillations. This differentiation seems to be dependent on an inflammatory microenvironment since depletion of VW-SC-derived macrophages by treatment with clodronate liposomes in vitro stopped the generation of Ao bCMs. These locally generated F4/80+ macrophages exhibit high levels of VEGF (vascular endothelial growth factor). To a great majority, VW-SCs were found to be positive for VEGFR-2 and blocking this receptor also stopped the generation VW-SC-derived beating cells in vitro. Furthermore, the treatment of aortic wall-derived cells with the ß-receptor agonist isoproterenol or the antagonist propranolol resulted in a significant increase or decrease of beating frequency. Finally, fluorescently labeled aortic wall-derived cells were implanted into the developing chick embryo heart field where they became positive for α-SRA two days after implantation. The current data strongly suggest that VW-SCs resident in the vascular adventitia deliver both progenitors for an inflammatory microenvironment and beating cells. The present study identifies that the Sca-1- rather than Sca-1+ fraction of mouse aortic wall-derived cells harbors VW-SCs differentiating into cardiomyocyte-like cells and reveals an essential role of VW-SCs-derived inflammatory macrophages and VEGF-signaling in this process. Furthermore, this study demonstrates the cardiogenic capacity of aortic VW-SCs in vivo using a chimeric chick embryonic model.
Das hohe invasive Potential und die starke Resistenz gegen Radio-/Chemotherapie von Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) Zellen machen sie zu dem tödlichsten Tumor ihrer Art. Es ist deshalb von großem Interesse die Grundlagen, welche der Migrationsfähigkeit und DNA Reparatur zu Grunde liegen, besser zu verstehen.
Im ersten Teil dieser Arbeit wurden zwei Algorithmen zur automatischen Analyse der Migration in der Einzelzellverfolgung und im Wundheilungsassay modifiziert. Die Auswertung der Daten konnte automatisch und somit schnell, effektiv und mit geringerem Arbeitsaufwand durchgeführt werden. Mit Hilfe dieser automatischen Algorithmen wurde die Migrationsfähigkeit von zwei GBM-Zelllinien (DK-MG und SNB19) untersucht. Zusätzlich wurde die konfokale Laserscanning- sowie die hochauflösende dSTORM-Fluoreszenzmikroskopie verwendet um die, der Zellbewegung zu Grunde liegende, Struktur des F Aktin und der fokalen Adhäsionskinase (FAK) aufzulösen und darzustellen. Unter Anwendung dieser genannten Methoden sind die Effekte des dualen PI3K/mTOR Inhibitors PI-103 alleine und in Kombination mit dem Hsp90 Inhibitor NVP AUY922 mit und ohne Bestrahlung auf die Bewegung untersucht worden. Es konnte festgestellt werden, dass sich beide Zelllinien deutlich in ihrem migratorischem Potential in vitro unterscheiden und zudem auch markante Unterschiede in ihrer Morphologie aufweisen. Die weniger invasiven DK MG-Zellen besitzen eine polarisierte Zellstruktur, wohingegen SNB19-Zellen sich durch multipolare ungerichtete Bewegung auszeichneten. Zudem wurde die Migration, durch PI3K/mTOR Inhibition mit PI-103 bei den DK-MG-Zellen (p53 wt, PTEN wt), sehr effektiv unterdrückt. Wohingegen sich die SNB19-Zellen (p53 mut, PTEN mut) resistent gegen diesen Inhibitor zeigten. Hsp90 Inhibition offenbarte in beiden Zelllinien einen starken inhibitorischen Effekt auf die Migration der Zellen sowie die Reorganisierung des F Aktinskelettes.
In der zweiten Hälfte dieser Arbeit wurde ein Augenmerk auf die DNA-DSB-Reparatur der GBM Zellen nach ionisierender Strahlung gelegt. Zunächst wurde eine automatische Analysesoftware „FocAn-3D“ entwickelt, mit dessen Hilfe die DNA Doppelstrangbruchreparaturkinetik untersucht werden sollte. Diese Software ermöglicht es die gesamten Zellkerne mit ihren γH2AX-Foci in 3D-cLSM-Aufnahmen zu untersuchen. Es konnte somit eine Verbesserung der Genauigkeit in der Auszählung der γH2AX-Foci erreicht werden, welche 2D beschränkter Software verwehrt bleibt. Mit FocAn-3D konnte der gesamte Verlauf der Induktions- und Abbauphase der γH2AX-Foci in DK MG- und SNB19-Zellen mit einem mathematischen Modell ausgewertet und dargestellt werden. Des Weiteren wurde die Nanometerstruktur von γH2AX- und pDNA-PKcs-Foci mittels hochauflösender dSTORM-Mikroskopie untersucht. Konventionelle Mikroskopiemethoden, begrenzt durch das Beugungslimit und einer Auflösung von ~200 nm, konnten die Nanometerstruktur (<100 nm) der Reparaturfoci bisher nicht darstellen. Mit Hilfe der beugungsunbegrenzten dSTORM-Mikroskopie war es möglich in DK MG- und SNB19-Zellen die Nanometerstruktur genannten Reparaturproteine in den Foci mit einer Auflösung von bis zu ~20 nm darzustellen. γH2AX-Foci zeigten sich als eine Verteilung aus einzelnen Untereinheiten („Nanofoci“) mit einem Durchmesser von ~45 nm. Dies lässt die Vermutung zu, dass es sich hier um die elementare Substruktur der Foci und somit der γH2AX enthaltenen Nukleosome handelt. DNA-PK-Foci wiesen hingegen eine diffusere Verteilung auf.
Die in dieser Arbeit ermittelten Unterschiede im Migrationsverhalten der Zellen rechtfertigen eine weitere präklinische Untersuchung der verwendeten Inhibitoren als potentielle Zelltherapeutika für die Behandlung von GBM. Zudem konnte sich dSTORM als machtvolles Hilfsmittel, sowohl zur Analyse der Migration zugrundeliegenden Zytoskelettstruktur und der Effekte der Hsp90 Inhibierung, als auch, der Nanostruktur der DNA-DSB-Reparaturfoci herausstellen. Es ist anzunehmen, dass beugungsunbegrenzte Mikroskopiemethoden sich als bedeutende Werkzeuge in der medizinischen und biologischen Erforschung der DNA-Reparaturmechanismen herausstellen werden. Das in dieser Arbeit entwickelte ImageJ Plugin „FocAn-3D“ bewies sich ebenfalls als ein vielversprechendes Werkzeug für die Analyse der Reparaturkinetik. Mit Hilfe von „FocAn-3D“ sollte es somit möglich sein u.a. den Einfluss gezielter Inhibition auf den zeitlichen Verlauf der Induktion und des Abbaus der DNA-Reparaturmaschinerie genauer zu studieren.
Morphological and Functional Ultrashort Echo Time (UTE) Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Human Lung
(2019)
In this thesis, a 3D Ultrashort echo time (3D-UTE) sequence was introduced in the Self-gated Non-Contrast-Enhanced Functional Lung Imaging (SENCEFUL) framework. The sequence was developed and implemented on a 3 Tesla MR scanner. The 3D-UTE technique consisted of a nonselective RF pulse followed by a koosh ball quasi-random sampling order of the k-space. Measurements in free-breathing and without contrast agent were performed in healthy subjects and a patient with lung cancer.
A gating technique, using a combination of different coils with high signal correlation, was evaluated in-vivo and compared with a manual approach of coil selection. The gating signal offered an estimation of the breathing motion during measurement and was used as a reference to segment the acquired data into different breathing phases.
Gradient delays and trajectory errors were corrected during post-processing using the Gradient Impulse Response Function. Iterative SENSE was then applied to determine the fully sampled data.
In order to eliminate signal changes caused by motion, a 3D image registration was employed, and the results were compared to a 2D image registration method.
Ventilation was assessed in 3D and regionally quantified by monitoring the signal changes in the lung parenchyma. Finally, image quality and quantitative ventilation values were compared to the standard 2D-SENCEFUL technique.
3D-UTE, combined with an automatic gating technique and SENCEFUL MRI, offered ventilation maps with high spatial resolution and SNR. Compared to the 2D method, UTE-SENCEFUL greatly improved the clinical quality of the structural images and the visualization of the lung parenchyma.
Through‐plane motion, partial volume effects and ventilation artifacts were also reduced with a three-dimensional method for image registration.
UTE-SENCEFUL was also able to quantify regional ventilation and presented similar results to previous studies.
Background
ACAM2000, a thymidine kinase (TK)-positive strain of vaccinia virus, is the current smallpox vaccine in the US. Preclinical testing demonstrated potent oncolytic activity of ACAM2000 against several tumor types. This Phase I clinical trial of ACAM2000 delivered by autologous adipose stromal vascular fraction (SVF) cells was conducted to determine the safety and feasibility of such a treatment in patients with advanced solid tumors or acute myeloid leukemia (AML).
Methods
Twenty-four patients with solid tumors and two patients with AML participated in this open-label, non-randomized dose-escalation trial. All patients were treated with SVF derived from autologous fat and incubated for 15 min to 1 h with ACAM2000 before application. Six patients received systemic intravenous application only, one patient received intra-tumoral application only, 15 patients received combination intravenous with intra-tumoral deployment, 3 patients received intravenous and intra-peritoneal injection and 1 patient received intravenous, intra-tumoral and intra-peritoneal injections. Safety at each dose level of ACAM2000 (1.4 × 106 plaque-forming units (PFU) to 1.8 × 107 PFU) was evaluated. Blood samples for PK assessments, flow cytometry and cytokine analysis were collected at baseline and 1 min, 1 h, 1 day, 1 week, 1 month, 3 months and 6 months following treatment.
Results
No serious toxicities (> grade 2) were reported. Seven patients reported an adverse event (AE) in this study: self-limiting skin rashes, lasting 7 to 18 days—an expected adverse reaction to ACAM2000. No AEs leading to study discontinuation were reported. Viral DNA was detected in all patients’ blood samples immediately following treatment. Interestingly, in 8 patients viral DNA disappeared 1 day and re-appeared 1 week post treatment, suggesting active viral replication at tumor sites, and correlating with longer survival of these patients. No major increase in cytokine levels or correlation between cytokine levels and skin rashes was noted. We were able to assess some initial efficacy signals, especially when the ACAM2000/SVF treatment was combined with checkpoint inhibition.
Conclusions
Treatment with ACAM2000/SVF in patients with advanced solid tumors or AML is safe and well tolerated, and several patients had signals of an anticancer effect. These promising initial clinical results merit further investigation of therapeutic utility.
Trial registration Retrospectively registered (ISRCTN#10201650) on October 22, 2018.
Dead wood comprises a vast amount of biological legacies that set the scene for ecological regeneration after wildfires, yet its removal is the most frequent management strategy worldwide. Soil-dwelling organisms are conspicuous, and they provide essential ecosystem functions, but their possible affection by different post-fire management strategies has so far been neglected. We analyzed the abundance, richness, and composition of belowground macroarthropod communities under two contrasting dead-wood management regimes after a large wildfire in the Sierra Nevada Natural and National Park (Southeast Spain). Two plots at different elevation were established, each containing three replicates of two experimental treatments: partial cut, where trees were cut and their branches lopped off and left over the ground, and salvage logging, where all the trees were cut, logs were piled, branches were mechanically masticated, and slash was spread on the ground. Ten years after the application of the treatments, soil cores were extracted from two types of microhabitat created by these treatments: bare-soil (in both treatments) and under-logs (in the partial cut treatment only). Soil macroarthropod assemblages were dominated by Hemiptera and Hymenoptera (mostly ants) and were more abundant and richer in the lowest plot. The differences between dead-wood treatments were most evident at the scale of management interventions: abundance and richness were lowest after salvage logging, even under similar microhabitats (bare-soil). However, there were no significant differences between microhabitat types on abundance and richness within the partial cut treatment. Higher abundance and richness in the partial cut treatment likely resulted from higher resource availability and higher plant diversity after natural regeneration. Our results suggest that belowground macroarthropod communities are sensitive to the manipulation of dead-wood legacies and that management through salvage logging could reduce soil macroarthropod recuperation compared to other treatments with less intense management even a decade after application.
The heterotrimeric protein kinase SNF1 plays a key role in the metabolic adaptation of the pathogenic yeast Candida albicans. It consists of the essential catalytic α-subunit Snf1, the γ-subunit Snf4, and one of the two β-subunits Kis1 and Kis2. Snf4 is required to release the N-terminal catalytic domain of Snf1 from autoinhibition by the C-terminal regulatory domain, and snf4Δ mutants cannot grow on carbon sources other than glucose. In a screen for suppressor mutations that restore growth of a snf4Δ mutant on alternative carbon sources, we isolated a mutant in which six amino acids between the N-terminal kinase domain and the C-terminal regulatory domain of Snf1 were deleted. The deletion was caused by an intragenic recombination event between two 8-bp direct repeats flanking six intervening codons. In contrast to truncated forms of Snf1 that contain only the kinase domain, the Snf4-independent Snf1\(^{Δ311 − 316}\) was fully functional and could replace wild-type Snf1 for normal growth, because it retained the ability to interact with the Kis1 and Kis2 β-subunits via its C-terminal domain. Indeed, the Snf4-independent Snf1\(^{Δ311 − 316}\) still required the β-subunits of the SNF1 complex to perform its functions and did not rescue the growth defects of kis1Δ mutants. Our results demonstrate that a preprogrammed in-frame deletion event within the SNF1 coding region can generate a mutated form of this essential kinase which abolishes autoinhibition and thereby overcomes growth deficiencies caused by a defect in the γ-subunit Snf4.
Breast cancer is the most common cancer among women worldwide and the second most common cause of cancer death in the developed countries. As the current state of the art in first-line drug screenings is highly ineffective, there is an urgent need for novel test systems that allow for reliable predictions of drug sensitivity.
In this study, a tissue engineering approach was used to successfully establish and standardize a 3-dimensional (3D) mamma carcinoma test system that was optimized for the testing of anti-tumour therapies as well as for the investigation of tumour biological issues. This 3D test system is based on the decellularised scaffold of a porcine small intestinal segment and represents the three molecular subsets of oestrogen receptor-positive, HER2/Neu-overexpressing and triple negative breast cancer (TNBC). The characterization of the test system with respect to morphology as well as the expression of markers for epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and differentiation indicate that the 3D tumour models cultured under static and dynamic conditions reflect tumour relevant features and have a good correlation with in vivo tumour tissue from the corresponding xenograft models. In this respect, the dynamic culture in a flow bioreactor resulted in the generation of tumour models that exhibited best reflection of the morphology of the xenograft material. Furthermore, the proliferation indices of 3D models were significantly reduced compared to 2-dimensional (2D) cell culture and therefore better reflect the in vivo situation. As this more physiological proliferation index prevents an overestimation of the therapeutic effect of cytostatic compounds, this is a crucial advantage of the test system compared to 2D culture. Moreover, it could be shown that the 3D models can recapitulate different tumour stages with respect to tumour cell invasion. The scaffold SISmuc with the preserved basement membrane structure allowed the investigation of invasion over this barrier which tumour cells of epithelial origin have to cross in in vivo conditions during the process of metastasis formation. Additionally, the data obtained from ultrastructural analysis and in situ zymography indicate that the invasion observed is connected to a tumour cell-associated change in the basement membrane in which matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are also involved. This features of the model in combination with the mentioned methods of analysis could be used in the future to mechanistically investigate invasive processes and to test anti-metastatic therapy strategies.
The validation of the 3D models as a test system with respect to the predictability of therapeutic effects was achieved by the clinically relevant targeted therapy with the monoclonal antibody trastuzumab which induces therapeutic response only in patients with HER2/Neu-overexpressing mamma carcinomas due to its specificity for HER2. While neither in 2D nor in 3D models of all molecular subsets a clear reduction of cell viability or an increase in apoptosis could be observed, a distinct increase in antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC) was detected only in the HER2/NEU-overexpressing 3D model with the help of an ADCC reporter gene assay that had been adapted for the application in the 3D model in the here presented work. This correlates with the clinical observations and underlines the relevance of ADCC as a mechanism of action (MOA) of trastuzumab. In order to measure the effects of ADCC on the tumour cells in a direct way without the indirect measurement via a reporter gene, the introduction of an immunological component into the models was required. This was achieved by the integration of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), thereby allowing the measurement of the induction of tumour cell apoptosis in the HER2/Neu-overexpressing model. Hence, in this study an immunocompetent model could be established that holds the potential for further testing of therapies from the emergent field of cancer immunotherapies.
Subsequently, the established test system was used for the investigation of scientific issues from different areas of application. By the comparison of the sensitivity of the 2D and 3D model of TNBC towards the water-insoluble compound curcumin that was applied in a novel nanoformulation or in a DMSO-based formulation, the 3D test system was successfully applied for the evaluation of an innovative formulation strategy for poorly soluble drugs in order to achieve cancer therapy-relevant concentrations. Moreover, due to the lack of targeted therapies for TNBC, the TNBC model was applied for testing novel treatment strategies. On the one hand, therapy with the WEE1 kinase inhibitor MK 1775 was evaluated as a single agent as well as in combination with the chemotherapeutic agent doxorubicin. This therapy approach did not reveal any distinct benefits in the 3D test system in contrast to testing in 2D culture. On the other hand, a novel therapy approach from the field of cellular immunotherapies was successfully applied in the TNBC 3D model. The treatment with T cells that express a chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) against ROR1 revealed in the static as well as in the dynamic model a migration of T cells into the tumour tissue, an enhanced proliferation of T cells as well as an efficient lysis of the tumour cells via apoptosis and therefore a specific anti-cancer effect of CAR-transduced T cells compared to control T cells. These results illustrate that the therapeutic application of CAR T cells is a promising strategy for the treatment of solid tumours like TNBC and that the here presented 3D models are suitable for the evaluation and optimization of cellular immunotherapies.
In the last part of this work, the 3D models were expanded by components of the tumour stroma for future applications. By coculture with fibroblasts, the natural structures of the intestinal scaffold comprising crypts and villi were remodelled and the tumour cells formed tumour-like structures together with the fibroblasts. This tissue model displayed a strong correlation with xenograft models with respect to morphology, marker expression as well as the activation of dermal fibroblasts towards a cancer-associated fibroblast (CAF) phenotype. For the integration of adipocytes which are an essential component of the breast stroma, a coculture with human adipose-derived stromal/stem cells (hASCs) which could be successfully differentiated along the adipose lineage in 3D static as well as dynamic models was established. These models are suitable especially for the mechanistic analysis of the reciprocal interaction between tumour cells and adipocytes due to the complex differentiation process.
Taken together, in this study a human 3D mamma carcinoma test system for application in the preclinical development and testing of anti-tumour therapies as well as in basic research in the field of tumour biology was successfully established. With the help of this modular test system, relevant data can be obtained concerning the efficacy of therapies in tumours of different molecular subsets and different tumour stages as well as for the optimization of novel therapy strategies like immunotherapies. In the future this can contribute to improve the preclinical screening and thereby to reduce the high attrition rates in pharmaceutical industry as well as the amount of animal experiments.
Das menschliche Gehirn ist ein Organ, das aufgrund seiner Komplexität und zellulären Diversität noch am wenigsten verstanden ist. Eine der Ursachen dafür sind zahlreiche Herausforderungen in diversen neurobiologischen Bild-gebungsverfahren. Erst seit der Erfindung der hochauflösenden Fluoreszenz-mikroskopie ist es möglich, Strukturen unterhalb der Beugungsgrenze zu visua-lisieren und somit eine maximale Auflösung von bis zu 20 nm zu erreichen. Zusätzlich hängt die Fähigkeit, biologische Strukturen aufzulösen, von der Markierungs-größe und -dichte ab. Derzeit ist die häufigste Methode zur Proteinfärbung die indirekte Antikörperfärbung, bei der ein Fluorophor-markierter Sekundärantikörper an einen Epitop-spezifischen Primärantikörper bindet. Dabei kann der Abstand von Zielstruktur und Fluorophor bis zu 30 nm betragen, was eine Auflösungs-verminderung zur Folge haben kann. Aufgrund dessen wurden in dieser Arbeit alternative Markierungsmethoden getestet, um postsynaptische Proteine sicht-bar zu machen.
Zunächst wurde der postsynaptische N-Methyl-D-Aspartat (NMDA)-Rezeptor mit Hilfe konventioneller indirekter Antikörperfärbung markiert. Hier war die NR1-Untereinheit des NMDA-Rezeptors von besonderem Interesse, da diese in der Autoimmunerkrankung Anti-NMDA-Rezeptor-Enzephalitis invol-viert ist.
Patienten dieser seltenen Krankheit bilden Autoantikörper gegen die NR1-Untereinheit, wodurch ein schneller reversibler Verlust der NMDA-Rezeptoren auf der Postsynapse induziert wird. Wichtige Informationen können nicht mehr ausreichend weitergegeben werden, was psychiatrische und neurologi-sche Störungen zur Folge hat. In dieser Arbeit wurden sowohl kommerzielle NR1-Antikörper, als auch rekombinante monoklonale NR1-Antikörper von Patien-ten mit Anti-NMDA-Rezeptor-Enzephalitis getestet. In konfokalen und in hochaufgelösten SIM- (engl. structured illumination microscopy) und dSTORM- (engl. direct stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy) Messun-gen konnten kommerzielle NR1-Antikörper keine erfolgreichen Färbungen erzielen. Dagegen erwiesen sich die rekombinanten monoklonalen NR1-Patientenantikörper als sehr spezifisch, sowohl in primären Neuronen als auch im Hippocampus von murinen Gehirnschnitten und lieferten gute Kolokalisati-onen mit dem postsynaptischen Markerprotein Homer.
Um die optische Auflösung zu verbessern, wurde eine neue Markierungs-methode mit sog. „Super-Binde-Peptiden“ (SBPs) getestet. SBPs sind modifi-zierte Peptide, die erhöhte Affinitäten und Spezifitäten aufweisen und mit ei-ner Größe von ~ 2,5 nm wesentlich kleiner als Antikörper sind. In dieser Arbeit bestätigte sich ein kleines hochspezifisches SPB, das an den Fluoreszenzfarb-stoff Tetra-
methylrhodamin (TMR) gekoppelt ist, als effektiver Marker für das Ankerpro-tein Gephyrin. Gephyrin ist für die Lokalisation und Verankerung einiger post-synaptischer Rezeptoren zuständig, indem es sie mit dem Cytoskelett der Zelle verbindet. SIM-Messungen in primären Neuronen zeigten eine bessere Clus-terrepräsentation bei der Färbung von Gephyrin mit SBPs, als mit Antikörper-färbung. Zusätzlich wurden Kolokalisationsanalysen von Gephyrin zusammen mit dem inhibito-rischen präsynaptischen vesikulären GABA-Transporter VGAT durchgeführt.
Eine weitere Färbemethode stellte die bioorthogonale Click-Färbung durch die Erweiterung des eukaryotischen genetischen Codes (engl. genetic code ex-pansion, GCE) dar. Dabei wurde eine unnatürliche, nicht-kanonische Amino-säure (engl. non-canonical amino acid, ncAA) ins Zielprotein eingebaut und in Kombination mit der Click-Chemie ortsspezifisch mit organischen Tetrazin-Farbstoff-Konjugaten angefärbt. Organische Fluorophore haben den Vorteil, dass sie mit einer Größe von 0,5 – 2 nm sehr klein sind und damit die natürli-chen Funktionen der Proteine in der Zelle kaum beeinflussen. In dieser Arbeit wurde zum ersten Mal gezeigt, dass der tetramere postsynaptische NMDA-Rezeptor durch die Amber-Supres-sionsmethode bioorthogonal angefärbt werden konnte. Aus sieben verschiede-nen Amber-Mutanten der NR1-Untereinheit stellte sich die Y392TAG-NR1-Mutante als diejenige mit der besten Proteinexpression, Färbeeffizienz und rezeptorfunktionalität heraus. Dies konnte durch Fluoreszenzmikroskopie- und Whole-Cell Patch-Clamp-Experimenten gezeigt werden. Die bioorthogo-nale Click-Färbung durch GCE eignete sich für die Färbung des NMDA-Rezeptors in verschiedenen Zelllinien, mit unterschiedlichen Tetrazin-Farbstoff-Konjugaten und für Lebendzellexperimente. In dSTORM-Messungen erwies sich das Tetrazin-Cy5-Farbstoff-Konjugat als ideal aufgrund seiner Grö-ße, Photostabilität, Helligkeit und seines geeigneten Blinkverhaltens, sodass eine homogene NMDA-Rezeptorverteilung auf der Zellmembran gezeigt wer-den konnte. NR1-Antikörperfärbungen wiesen dagegen starke Clusterbildun-gen auf. Die Ergebnisse konnten belegen, dass kleinere Farbstoffe eine deut-lich bessere Zugänglichkeit zu ihrem Zielprotein haben und somit besser für die hochauflösende Fluoreszenzmikroskopie geeignet sind.
This thesis elucidates patterns and drivers of invertebrate herbivory, herbivore diversity, and community-level biomass along elevational and land use gradients at Mt. Kilimanjaro, Tanzania.
Chapter I provides background information on the response and predictor variables, study system, and the study design. First, I give an overview of the elevational patterns of species diversity/richness and herbivory published in the literature. The overview illuminates existing debates on elevational patterns of species diversity/richness and herbivory. In connection to these patterns, I also introduce several hypotheses and mechanisms put forward to explain macroecological patterns of species richness. Furthermore, I explain the main variables used to test hypotheses. Finally, I describe the study system and the study design used.
Chapter II explores the patterns of invertebrate herbivory and their underlying drivers along extensive elevational and land use gradients on the southern slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro. I recorded standing leaf herbivory from leaf chewers, leaf miners and gall-inducing insects on 55 study sites located in natural and anthropogenic habitats distributed from 866 to 3060 meters above sea level (m asl) on Mt. Kilimanjaro. Standing leaf herbivory was related to climatic variables [mean annual temperature - (MAT) and mean annual precipitation - (MAP)], net primary productivity (NPP) and plant functional traits (leaf traits) [specific leaf area (SLA), carbon to nitrogen ratio (CN), and nitrogen to phosphorous ratio (NP)]. Results revealed an unimodal pattern of total leaf herbivory along the elevation gradient in natural habitats. Findings also revealed differences in the levels and patterns of herbivory among feeding guilds and between anthropogenic and natural habitats. Changes in NP and CN ratios which were closely linked to NPP were the strongest predictors of leaf herbivory. Our study uncovers the role of leaf nutrient stoichiometry and its linkages to climate in explaining the variation in leaf herbivory along climatic gradients.
Chapter III presents patterns and unravels direct and indirect effects of resource (food) abundance (NPP), resource (food) diversity [Functional Dispersion (FDis)], resource quality (SLA, NP, and CN rations), and climate variables (MAT and MAP) on species diversity of phytophagous beetles. Data were collected from 65 study sites located in natural and anthropogenic habitats distributed from 866 to 4550 m asl on the southern slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro. Sweep net and beating methods were used to collect a total of 3,186 phytophagous beetles representing 21 families and 304 morphospecies. Two groups, weevils (Curculionidae) and leaf beetles (Chrysomelidae) were the largest and most diverse families represented with 898 and 1566 individuals, respectively. Results revealed complex (bimodal) and dissimilar patterns of Chao1-estimated species richness (hereafter referred to as species diversity) along elevation and land use gradients. Results from path analysis showed that temperature and climate-mediated changes in NPP had a significant positive direct and indirect effect on species diversity of phytophagous beetles, respectively. The results also revealed that the effect of NPP (via beetles abundance and diversity of food resources) on species diversity is stronger than that of temperature. Since we found that factors affecting species diversity were intimately linked to climate, I concluded that predicted climatic changes over the coming decades will likely alter the species diversity patterns which we observe today.
Chapter IV presents patterns and unravels the direct and indirect effects of climate, NPP and anthropogenic disturbances on species richness and community-level biomass of wild large mammals which represent endothermic organisms and the most important group of vertebrate herbivores. Data were collected from 66 study sites located in natural and anthropogenic habitats distributed from 870 to 4550 m asl on the southern slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro. Mammals were collected using camera traps and used path analysis to disentangle the direct and indirect effects of climatic variables, NPP, land use, land area, levels of habitat protection and occurrence of domesticated mammals on the patterns of richness and community-level biomass of wild mammals, respectively. Results showed unimodal patterns for species richness and community-level biomass of wild mammals along elevation gradients and that the patterns differed depending on the type of feeding guild. Findings from path analysis showed that net primary productivity and levels of habitat protection had a strong direct effect on species richness and community-level biomass of wild mammals whereas temperature had an insignificant direct effect. Findings show the importance of climate-mediated food resources in determining patterns of species richness of large mammals. While temperature is among key predictors of species richness in several ectotherms, its direct influence in determining species richness of wild mammals was insignificant. Findings show the sensitivity of wild mammals to anthropogenic influences and underscore the importance of protected areas in conserving biodiversity.
In conclusion, despite a multitude of data sets on species diversity and ecosystem functions along broad climatic gradients, there is little mechanistic understanding of the underlying causes. Findings obtained in the three studies illustrate their contribution to the scientific debates on the mechanisms underlying patterns of herbivory and diversity along elevation gradients. Results present strong evidence that plant functional traits play a key role in determining invertebrate herbivory and species diversity along elevation gradients and that, their strong interdependence with climate and anthropogenic activities will shape these patterns in future. Additionally, findings from path analysis demonstrated that herbivore diversity, community-level biomass, and herbivory are strongly influenced by climate (either directly or indirectly). Therefore, the predicted climatic changes are expected to dictate ecological patterns, biotic interactions, and energy and nutrient fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems in the coming decades with stronger impacts probably occurring in natural ecosystems. Furthermore, findings demonstrated the significance of land use effects in shaping ecological patterns. As anthropogenic pressure is advancing towards more pristine higher elevations, I advocate conservation measures which are responsive to and incorporate human dimensions to curb the situation. Although our findings emanate from observational studies which have to take several confounding factors into account, we have managed to demonstrate global change responses in real ecosystems and fully established organisms with a wide range of interactions which are unlikely to be captured in artificial experiments. Nonetheless, I recommend additional experimental studies addressing the effect of top-down control by natural enemies on herbivore diversity and invertebrate herbivory in order to deepen our understanding of the mechanisms driving macroecological patterns along elevation gradients.
Viral infections induce a significant impact on various functional categories of biological processes in the host. The understanding of this complex modification of the infected host immune system requires a global and detailed overview on the infection process. Therefore it is essential to apply a powerful approach which identifies the involved components conferring the capacity to recognize and respond to specific pathogens, which in general are defeated in so-called compatible virus-plant infections. Comparative and integrated systems biology of plant-virus interaction progression may open a novel framework for a systemic picture on the modulation of plant immunity during different infections and understanding pathogenesis mechanisms. In this thesis these approaches were applied to study plant-virus infections during two main viral pathogens of cassava: Cassava brown streak virus and African cassava mosaic virus.
Here, the infection process was reconstructed by a combination of omics data-based analyses and metabolic network modelling, to understand the major metabolic pathways and elements underlying viral infection responses in different time series, as well as the flux activity distribution to gain more insights into the metabolic flow and mechanism of regulation; this resulted in simultaneous investigations on a broad spectrum of changes in several levels including the gene expression, primary metabolites, and enzymatic flux associated with the characteristic disease development process induced in Nicotiana benthamiana plants due to infection with CBSV or ACMV.
Firstly, the transcriptome dynamics of the infected plant was analysed by using mRNA-sequencing, in order to investigate the differential expression profile according the symptom developmental stage. The spreading pattern and different levels of biological functions of these genes were analysed associated with the infection stage and virus entity. A next step was the Real-Time expression modification of selected key pathway genes followed by their linear regression model. Subsequently, the functional loss of regulatory genes which trigger R-mediated resistance was observed. Substantial differences were observed between infected mutants/transgenic lines and wild-types and characterized in detail. In addition, we detected a massive localized accumulation of ROS and quantified the scavenging genes expression in the infected wild-type plants relative to mock infected controls.
Moreover, we found coordinated regulated metabolites in response to viral infection measured by using LC-MS/MS and HPLC-UV-MS. This includes the profile of the phytohormones, carbohydrates, amino acids, and phenolics at different time points of infection with the RNA and DNA viruses. This was influenced by differentially regulated enzymatic activities along the salicylate, jasmonate, and chorismate biosynthesis, glycolysis, tricarboxylic acid cycle, and pentose phosphate pathways, as well as photosynthesis, photorespiration, transporting, amino acid and fatty acid biosynthesis. We calculated the flux redistribution considering a gradient of modulation for enzymes along different infection stages, ranging from pre-symptoms towards infection stability.
Collectively, our reverse-engineering study consisting of the generation of experimental data and modelling supports the general insight with comparative and integrated systems biology into a model plant-virus interaction system. We refine the cross talk between transcriptome modification, metabolites modulation and enzymatic flux redistribution during compatible infection progression. The results highlight the global alteration in a susceptible host, correlation between symptoms severity and the alteration level. In addition we identify the detailed corresponding general and specific responses to RNA and DNA viruses at different stages of infection. To sum up, all the findings in this study strengthen the necessity of considering the timing of treatment, which greatly affects plant defence against viral infection, and might result in more efficient or combined targeting of a wider range of plant pathogens.
Opsin 1 and Opsin 2 of the corn smut fungus ustilago maydis are green light-driven proton pumps
(2019)
In fungi, green light is absorbed by rhodopsins, opsin proteins carrying a retinal molecule as chromophore. The basidiomycete Ustilago maydis, a fungal pathogen that infects corn plants, encodes three putative photoactive opsins, called ops1 (UMAG_02629), ops2 (UMAG_00371), and ops3 (UMAG_04125). UmOps1 and UmOps2 are expressed during the whole life cycle, in axenic cultures as well as in planta, whereas UmOps3 was recently shown to be absent in axenic cultures but highly expressed during plant infection. Here we show that expression of UmOps1 and UmOps2 is induced by blue light under control of white collar 1 (Wco1). UmOps1 is mainly localized in the plasma membrane, both when expressed in HEK cells and U. maydis sporidia. In contrast, UmOps2 was mostly found intracellularly in the membranes of vacuoles. Patch-clamp studies demonstrated that both rhodopsins are green light-driven outward rectifying proton pumps. UmOps1 revealed an extraordinary pH dependency with increased activity in more acidic environment. Also, UmOps1 showed a pronounced, concentration-dependent enhancement of pump current caused by weak organic acids (WOAs), especially by acetic acid and indole-3-acetic acid (IAA). In contrast, UmOps2 showed the typical behavior of light-driven, outwardly directed proton pumps, whereas UmOps3 did not exhibit any electrogenity. With this work, insights were gained into the localization and molecular function of two U. maydis rhodopsins, paving the way for further studies on the biological role of these rhodopsins in the life cycle of U. maydis.
Auxin is a molecule, which controls many aspects of plant development through both transcriptional and non-transcriptional signaling responses. AUXIN BINDING PROTEIN1 (ABP1) is a putative receptor for rapid non-transcriptional auxin-induced changes in plasma membrane depolarization and endocytosis rates. However, the mechanism of ABP1-mediated signaling is poorly understood. Here we show that membrane depolarization and endocytosis inhibition are ABP1-independent responses and that auxin-induced plasma membrane depolarization is instead dependent on the auxin influx carrier AUX1. AUX1 was itself not involved in the regulation of endocytosis. Auxin-dependent depolarization of the plasma membrane was also modulated by the auxin efflux carrier PIN2. These data establish a new connection between auxin transport and non-transcriptional auxin signaling.
YAP and TAZ, downstream effectors of the Hippo pathway, are important regulators of proliferation. Here, we show that the ability of YAP to activate mitotic gene expression is dependent on the Myb-MuvB (MMB) complex, a master regulator of genes expressed in the G2/M phase of the cell cycle. By carrying out genome-wide expression and binding analyses, we found that YAP promotes binding of the MMB subunit B-MYB to the promoters of mitotic target genes. YAP binds to B-MYB and stimulates B-MYB chromatin association through distal enhancer elements that interact with MMB-regulated promoters through chromatin looping. The cooperation between YAP and B-MYB is critical for YAP-mediated entry into mitosis. Furthermore, the expression of genes coactivated by YAP and B-MYB is associated with poor survival of cancer patients. Our findings provide a molecular mechanism by which YAP and MMB regulate mitotic gene expression and suggest a link between two cancer-relevant signaling pathways.
Neuropeptides are processed from larger preproproteins by a dedicated set of enzymes. The molecular and biochemical mechanisms underlying preproprotein processing and the functional importance of processing enzymes are well‐characterised in mammals, but little studied outside this group. In contrast to mammals, Drosophila melanogaster lacks a gene for carboxypeptidase E (CPE ), a key enzyme for mammalian peptide processing. By combining peptidomics and neurogenetics, we addressed the role of carboxypeptidase D (dCPD ) in global neuropeptide processing and selected peptide‐regulated behaviours in Drosophila . We found that a deficiency in dCPD results in C‐terminally extended peptides across the peptidome, suggesting that dCPD took over CPE function in the fruit fly. dCPD is widely expressed throughout the nervous system, including peptidergic neurons in the mushroom body and neuroendocrine cells expressing adipokinetic hormone. Conditional hypomorphic mutation in the dCPD ‐encoding gene silver in the larva causes lethality, and leads to deficits in starvation‐induced hyperactivity and appetitive gustatory preference, as well as to reduced viability and activity levels in adults. A phylogenomic analysis suggests that loss of CPE is not common to insects, but only occurred in Hymenoptera and Diptera. Our results show that dCPD is a key enzyme for neuropeptide processing and peptide‐regulated behaviour in Drosophila . dCPD thus appears as a suitable target to genetically shut down total neuropeptide production in peptidergic neurons. The persistent occurrence of CPD in insect genomes may point to important further CPD functions beyond neuropeptide processing which cannot be fulfilled by CPE.
Unterschiede in Frontaler Kortex Oxygenierung in zweierlei Risikogruppen der Alzheimer Demenz
(2019)
Die verbesserte medizinische Versorgung führt zu einer zunehmenden Lebenserwartung unserer Gesellschaft. Damit steigt auch die sozioökonomische Relevanz neurodegenerativer Erkrankungen kontinuierlich. Für die Alzheimer Demenz (AD), die dabei die häufigste Ursache darstellt, stehen bisher keine krankheitsmodifizierenden Behandlungsoptionen zur Verfügung. Die lange präklinische Phase der Erkrankung birgt jedoch großes Potential für die Entwicklung neuer Behandlungsoptionen. Das Untersuchen von Risikogruppen ist für die Identifikation von Prädiktoren einer späteren AD Manifestation von besonderem Interesse. In diesem Zusammenhang werden insbesondere das Vorliegen genetischer Risikokonstellationen, wie dem Apolipoprotein E (APOE) Ɛ4-Allel, sowie kognitiver Risikofaktoren, wie der „leichten kognitiven Beeinträchtigung“ (MCI), diskutiert. Die Identifikation präklinischer Aktivierungsunterschiede in relevanten Gehirnregionen von Risikogruppen kann als Basis für die Entwicklung neurofunktioneller Früherkennungs-Marker dienen. Der präfrontale Kortex (PFC), welcher mit der Steuerung von Exekutivfunktionen assoziiert wird, hat sich in diesem Zusammenhang in bisherigen Studien als eine relevante Schlüsselregion manifestiert. Aufgrund der aufwendigen und kostenintensiven bildgebenden Untersuchungsmethoden, sind die genauen Prozesse jedoch noch unklar.
Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war es daher, Unterschiede in der PFC Oxygenierung in zweierlei Risikogruppen der AD mit einer kostengünstigeren Bildgebungsmethode, der funktionellen Nahinfrarot Spektroskopie (fNIRS), zu untersuchen. Dafür wurde in einem ersten Schritt, der Trailmaking Test (TMT), ein weitverbreiteter neuropsychologischer Test zur Erfassung exekutiver Funktionen, für fNIRS implementiert. Als Grundlage für die Untersuchung frühpathologischer Prozesse, wurden zunächst gesunde Alterungsprozesse betrachtet. Der Vergleich von jungen und älteren Probanden (n = 20 pro Gruppe) wies neben der Eignung der Testimplementierung für fNIRS auf eine spezifische bilaterale PFC Oxygenierung hin, welche bei jungen Probanden rechtshemisphärisch lateralisiert war. Ältere Probanden hingegen zeigten bei vergleichbaren Verhaltensdaten insgesamt mehr signifikante Kanäle sowie eine Abnahme der Lateralisierung. Dies kann als zusätzlicher Bedarf an Ressourcen in gesunden Alterungsprozessen interpretiert werden.
Im Rahmen der Hauptstudie wurden anschließend insgesamt 604 ältere Probanden im Alter von 70 bis 76 Jahren untersucht. Zunächst wurde die genetische Risikogruppe der Ɛ4-Allel-Träger (n = 78) mit den neutralen Ɛ3-Allel-Trägern (n = 216) und den Trägern des als protektiv geltenden Ɛ2-Allels (n = 50) verglichen. Hierbei zeigte sich eine geringere Oxygenierung der Risikogruppe bei geringer Aufgabenschwierigkeit, während sich ein erhöhter Oxygenierungsanstieg im medialen PFC mit steigender Aufgabenschwierigkeit zeigte. Dies deutet auf einen erhöhten Bedarf an neuronalen Kontrollmechanismen der Risikogruppe zur Bewältigung der steigenden Aufgabenschwierigkeit hin. Die protektive Gruppe zeigte hingegen eine erhöhte Oxygenierung im ventralen PFC mit steigender Aufgabenschwierigkeit, was möglicherweise auf einen präventiven Effekt hindeuten könnte.
Weiterführend wurden MCI-Patienten mit gesunden Probanden (n = 57 pro Gruppe) hinsichtlich des kognitiven Risikofaktors verglichen. Hierbei zeigte sich ein punktuell reduzierter Oxygenierunganstieg der MCI Patienten mit steigender Aufgabenschwierigkeit vor allem im ventralen PFC bei ebenfalls stabiler Verhaltensleistung. Die gefundene Reduktion könnte ein Zeichen für eine aufgebrauchte kognitive Reserve sein, welche Einbußen auf Verhaltensebene voranzugehen scheint.
Diese charakteristischen Unterschiede in den frontalen Oxygenierungsmustern von Risikogruppen (APOE, MCI) könnten als Biomarker zur Früherkennung von AD noch vor dem Auftreten kognitiver Einbußen dienen. Die fNIRS-Untersuchung während der Durchführung des TMT hat sich in diesem Zusammenhang als potentielles Instrument zur Frühdiagnose der präklinischen Phase der AD als geeignet erwiesen. Die Ergebnisse werden unter Einbezug des wissenschaftlichen Kontexts interpretiert und Implikationen für weitere notwendige Studien sowie die klinische Anwendbarkeit diskutiert.
The clonal population structure of Candida albicans suggests that (para)sexual recombination does not play an important role in the lifestyle of this opportunistic fungal pathogen, an assumption that is strengthened by the fact that most C. albicans strains are heterozygous at the mating type locus (MTL) and therefore mating-incompetent. On the other hand, mating might occur within clonal populations and allow the combination of advantageous traits that were acquired by individual cells to adapt to adverse conditions. We have investigated if parasexual recombination may be involved in the evolution of highly drug-resistant strains exhibiting multiple resistance mechanisms against fluconazole, an antifungal drug that is commonly used to treat infections by C. albicans. Growth of strains that were heterozygous for MTL and different fluconazole resistance mutations in the presence of the drug resulted in the emergence of derivatives that had become homozygous for the mutated allele and the mating type locus and exhibited increased drug resistance. When MTLa/a and MTLα/α cells of these strains were mixed in all possible combinations, we could isolate mating products containing the genetic material from both parents. The initial mating products did not exhibit higher drug resistance than their parental strains, but further propagation under selective pressure resulted in the loss of the wild-type alleles and increased fluconazole resistance. Therefore, fluconazole treatment not only selects for resistance mutations but also promotes genomic alterations that confer mating competence, which allows cells in an originally clonal population to exchange individually acquired resistance mechanisms and generate highly drug-resistant progeny.
Besides a growing tendency for delayed parenthood, sedentary lifestyle coupled with overnutrition has dramatically increased worldwide over the last few decades. Epigenetic mechanisms can help us understand the epidemics and heritability of complex traits like obesity to a significant extent. Majority of the research till now has focused on determining the impact of maternal factors on health and disease risk in the offspring(s).
This doctoral thesis is focused on deciphering the potential effects of male aging and obesity on sperm methylome, and consequences/transmission via germline to the next generation. In humans, this was assessed in a unique cohort of ~300 sperm samples, collected after in vitro fertilization/intracytoplasmic sperm injection, as well as in conceived fetal cord blood samples of the children. Furthermore, aging effect on sperm samples derived from a bovine cohort was analyzed.
The study identified that human male aging significantly increased the DNA methylation levels of the promoter, the upstream core element, the 18S, and the 28S regions of ribosomal DNA (rDNA) in sperm. Prediction models were developed to anticipate an individual’s age based on the methylation status of rDNA regions in his sperm. Hypermethylation of alpha satellite and LINE1 repeats in human sperm was also observed with aging. Epimutations, which are aberrantly methylated CpG sites, were significantly higher in sperm of older males compared to the younger ones. These effects on the male germline had a negative impact on embryo quality of the next generation. Consistent with these results, DNA methylation of rDNA regions, bovine alpha satellite, and testis satellite repeats displayed a significant positive correlation with aging sperm samples within the same individual and across different age-grouped bulls.
A positive association between human male obesity/body mass index (BMI) and DNA methylation of the imprinted MEG3 gene and the obesity-related HIF3A gene was detected in sperm. These BMI-induced sperm DNA methylation signatures were transmitted to next generation fetal cord blood (FCB) samples in a gender-specific manner. Males, but not female offsprings exhibited a significant positive correlation between father’s BMI and FCB DNA methylation in the two above-mentioned amplicons. Additionally, hypomethylation of IGF2 with increased paternal BMI was observed in female FCB samples. Parental allele-specific in-depth methylation analysis of imprinted genes using next generation sequencing technology also revealed significant correlations between paternal factors like age and BMI, and the corresponding father’s allele DNA methylation in FCB samples.
Deep bisulphite sequencing of imprinted genes in diploid somatic cord blood cells of offspring detected that the levels of DNA methylation signatures largely depended on the underlying genetic variant, i.e. sequence haplotypes. Allele-specific epimutations were observed in PEG1, PEG5, MEG3, H19, and IGF2 amplicons. For the former three genes, the non-imprinted unmethylated allele displayed more epimutations than the imprinted methylated allele. On the other hand, for the latter two genes, the imprinted allele exhibited higher epimutation rate than that of the non-imprinted allele.
In summary, the present study proved that male aging and obesity impacts the DNA methylome of repetitive elements and imprinted genes respectively in sperm, and also has considerable consequences on the next generation. Nevertheless, longitudinal follow-up studies are highly encouraged to elucidate if these effects can influence the risk of developing abnormal phenotype in the offspring during adulthood.
Mbt/PAK4 together with SRC modulates N-Cadherin adherens junctions in the developing Drosophila eye
(2019)
Tissue morphogenesis is accompanied by changes of adherens junctions (AJ). During Drosophila eye development, AJ reorganization includes the formation of isolated N-Cadherin AJ between photoreceptors R3/R4. Little is known about how these N-Cadherin AJ are established and maintained. This study focuses on the kinases Mbt/PAK4 and SRC, both known to alter E-Cadherin AJ across phyla. Drosophila p21-activated kinase Mbt and the non-receptor tyrosine kinases Src64 and Src42 regulate proper N-Cadherin AJ. N-Cadherin AJ elongation depends on SRC kinase activity. Cell culture experiments demonstrate binding of both Drosophila SRC isoforms to N-Cadherin and its subsequent tyrosine phosphorylation. In contrast, Mbt stabilizes but does not bind N-Cadherin in vitro. Mbt is required in R3/R4 for zipping the N-Cadherin AJ between these cells, independent of its kinase activity and Cdc42-binding. The mbt phenotype can be reverted by mutations in Src64 and Src42. Because Mbt neither directly binds to SRC proteins nor has a reproducible influence on their kinase activity, the conclusion is that Mbt and SRC signaling converge on N-Cadherin. N-Cadherin AJ formation during eye development requires a proper balance between the promoting effects of Mbt and the inhibiting influences of SRC kinases.