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Each year millions of plastic and reconstructive procedures are performed to regenerate soft tissue defects after, for example, traumata, deep burns or tumor resections. Tissue engineered adipose tissue grafts are a promising alternative to autologous fat transfer or synthetic implants to meet this demand for adipose tissue. Strategies of tissue engineering, especially the use of cell carriers, provide an environment for better cell survival, an easier positioning and supplemented with the appropriate conditions a faster vascularization in vivo. To successfully engineer an adipose tissue substitute for clinical use, it is crucial to know the actual intended application. In some areas, like the upper and lower extremities, only a thin subcutaneous fat layer is needed and in others, large volumes of vascularized fat grafts are more desirable. The use and interplay of stem cells and selected scaffolds were investigated and provide now a basis for the generation of fitted and suitable substitutes in two different application areas.
Complex injuries of the upper and lower extremities, in many cases, lead to excessive scarring. Due to severe damage to the subcutaneous fat layer, a common sequela is adhesion formation to mobile structures like tendons, nerves, and blood vessels resulting in restricted motion and disabling pain [Moor 1996, McHugh 1997]. In order to generate a subcutaneous fat layer to cushion scarred tissue after substantial burns or injuries, different collagen matrices were tested for clinical handling and the ability to support adipogenesis. When testing five different collagen matrices, PermacolTM and StratticeTM showed promising characteristics; additionally both possess the clinical approval. Under culture conditions, only PermacolTM, a cross-linked collagen matrix, exhibited an excellent long-term stability. Ranking nearly on the same level was StratticeTM, a non-cross-linked dermal scaffold; it only exhibited a slight shrinkage. All other scaffolds tested were severely compromised in stability under culture conditions. Engineering a subcutaneous fat layer, a construct would be desirable with a thin layer of emerging fat for cushioning on one side, and a non-seeded other side for cell migration and host integration. With PermacolTM and StratticeTM, it was possible to produce constructs with ASC (adipose derived stem cells) seeded on one side, which could be adipogenically differentiated. Additionally, the thickness of the cell layer could be varied. Thereby, it becomes possible to adjust the thickness of the construct to the surrounding tissue. In order to reduce the pre-implantation time ex vivo and the costs, the culture time was varied by testing different induction protocols. An adipogenic induction period of only four days was demonstrated to be sufficient to obtain a substantial adipogenic differentiation of the applied ASC. Thus, seeded with ASC, PermacolTM and StratticeTM are suitable scaffolds to engineer subcutaneous fat layers for reconstruction of the upper and lower extremities, as they support adipogenesis and are appropriately thin, and therefore would not compromise the cosmesis.
For the engineering of large-volume adipose tissue, adequate vascularization still represents a major challenge. With the objective to engineer vascularized fat pads, it is important to consider the slow kinetics of revascularization in vivo. Therefore, a decellularized porcine jejunum with pre-existing vascular structures and pedicles to connect to the host vasculature or the circulation of a bioreactor system was used. In a first step, the ability of a small decellularized jejunal section was tested for cell adhesion and for supporting adipogenic differentiation of hASC mono-cultures. Cell adhesion and adipogenic maturation of ASC seeded on the jejunal material was verified through histological and molecular analysis. After the successful mono-culture, the goal was to establish a MVEC (microvascular endothelial cells) and ASC co-culture; suitable culture conditions had to be found, which support the viability of both cell types and do not interfere with the adipogenic differentiation. After the elimination of EGF (epidermal growth factor) from the co-culture medium, substantial adipogenic maturation was observed. In the next step, a large jejunal segment (length 8 cm), with its pre-existing vascular structures and arterial/venous pedicles, was connected to the supply system of a custom-made bioreactor. After successful reseeding the vascular structure with endothelial cells, the lumen was seeded with ASC which were then adipogenically induced. Histological and molecular examinations confirmed adipogenic maturation and the existence of seeded vessels within the engineered construct. Noteworthily, a co-localization of adipogenically differentiating ASC and endothelial cells in vascular networks could be observed. So, for the first time a vascularized fat construct was developed in vitro, based on the use of a decellularized porcine jejunum. As this engineered construct can be connected to a supply system or even to a patient vasculature, it is versatile in use, for example, as transplant in plastic and reconstruction surgery, as model in basic research or as an in vitro drug testing system.
To summarize, in this work a promising substitute for subcutaneous fat layer reconstruction, in the upper and lower extremities, was developed, and the first, as far as reported, in vitro generated adipose tissue construct with integrated vascular networks was successfully engineered.
Ziel der vorliegenden tierexperimentellen Studie war es, Unterschiede im Einheilverhalten der Werkstoffe Titan und VA-Stahl (316L) anhand der Matrixproteine Kollagen Typ I (C1), Kollagen Typ III (C3) und Fibronektin im implantatumgebenden Interface zu untersuchen und darzustellen. Hierzu wurden die Einheilkapseln der Implantate nach subkutaner, intramuskulärer und intraossärer Implantation nach den Bewertungskriterien Kapselqualität, Kapseldicke und Verteilungsmuster der Matrixproteine mittels konventioneller Mikroskopie und Konfokaler Laserscanning Mikroskopie (CLSM) analysiert. Nach subkutaner Implantation zeigten beide Werkstoffe in Übereinstimmung mit den Ergebnissen von SHANNON et al. (1997) vermehrt locker angeordnete, teils parallel orientierte Kollagenfasern mit erhöhtem Zellaufkommen an Fibroblasten und Makrophagen. Nach intramuskulärer Implantation jedoch fanden sich vorwiegend parallel angeordnete, teils dicht gepackte Kollagenfasern mit nur mäßig erhöhtem Zellaufkommen. Intramuskulär eingebrachte Implantate heilten in dünneren Kapseln ein, als subkutan eingebrachte Implantate. Es ergab sich keine Korrelation zu den ermittelten Kapselqualitäten. Dies erstaunt umso mehr, da unter der fortwährenden funktionellen Beanspruchung der intramuskulären Implantate im Bereich der Bauchmuskulatur gegenüber der statischeren Platzierung im subkutanen Rückenfett eine erhöhte Zell- und Matrixreaktion erwartet worden war. Im Lokalisationsvergleich zeigte sich intramuskulär für beide Werkstoffe ein erhöhtes Aufkommen an Fibronektin. Dies könnte auf die erhöhte Stoffwechselaktivität und funktionelle Belastung im Muskelgewebe zurückgeführt werden (ROSENGREN et al. 1994). Nach intraossärer Implantation konnten dünnere Kallusformationen für VA-Stahl gegenüber Titan in allen Proteinfluoreszenzen nachgewiesen werden. Die Qualität der Kallusformation und die histologische Kallusstruktur glichen sich mit zunehmender Implantationsdauer der regulären Knochenstruktur an. Die semiquantitativ beurteilte Verteilung der Matrixproteine mittels CLSM zeigte bei deutlichen Standardabweichungen für beide Werkstoffe erhöhte Fluoreszenz-Intensitäten nur in den implantatnahen Kapselanteilen. In den mittleren und den implantatfernen Kapselabschnitten waren für beide Werkstoffe inkonstant höhere Fluoreszenzwerte gegenüber den Vergleichskollektiven messbar. Der intraossäre Materialvergleich ergab implantatnahe und implantatferne Fluoreszenzmaxima für alle Matrixproteine, die mit zunehmender Implantationsdauer abfielen. Reproduzierbare, materialspezifische Unterschiede waren in Analogie zu BERGER-GORBET et al. (1996) nicht zu finden. In den mittleren Kallusabschnitten konnten reproduzierbare Fluoreszenzunterschiede nur bei Detektion von Kollagen Typ I (C1) in allen Zeitintervallen gesehen werden. Im Vergleich zur Literatur konnte die von VIROLAINEN et al. (1997) beschriebene biphasische Proteinanhäufung, wie auch ein wechselndes Proteinaufkommen (LINDHOLM et al. 1996) nach intraossärer Implantation nicht nachvollzogen werden. Ergänzende Beobachtungen der hier vorgestellten Studie verdeutlichen, dass die lokale, intraossäre Anreicherung von Matrixproteinen, unabhängig von Implantatinsertion oder gar Werkstoffeigenschaften, nach jeglicher Traumatisierung von Knochengewebe den knöchernen Reparationsprozess begleitet. Unter dem Aspekt der Restitutio ad Integrum von Knochenwunden können diese Beobachtungen auf das implantatnahe und das implantatferne Restitutionszentrum übertragen werden. Die Aktivität dieser Restitutionszentren hält bis zum Abschluss der knöchernen Remodellierung über 12 Wochen hinaus an. Dies deckt sich mit Aussagen von STEFLIK et al. (1998), wonach der periimplantäre Knochenumbau langfristig dynamisch bestehen bleibt. Um der zunehmenden Verbreitung nicht nur dentaler Implantate gerecht zu werden, muss auch zukünftig ein besseres Verständnis der Komunikationswege zwischen Implantaten und Biosystemen gewonnen werden. Dies bedeutet für die Herstellung und Weiterentwicklung von Implantaten, dass nicht nur die Werkstoff- und Oberflächenauswahl wichtig ist, sondern auch die funktionell erforderliche Oberflächenstrukturierung auf die gewünschte Wechselwirkung mit Bestandteilen der EZM und den Zellen angepasst sein sollte (THULL 2005). Die CLSM kann hierbei aufgrund der Möglichkeit der 3-dimensionalen in-situ-Darstellung des Implantatinterface biologisch-strukturelle und molekularbiologisch-immunologische Fragestellungen beantworten.
3D bioprinting often involves application of highly concentrated polymeric bioinks to enable fabrication of stable cell-hydrogel constructs, although poor cell survival, compromised stem cell differentiation, and an inhomogeneous distribution of newly produced extracellular matrix (ECM) are frequently observed. Therefore, this study presents a bioink platform using a new versatile dual-stage crosslinking approach based on thiolated hyaluronic acid (HA-SH), which not only provides stand-alone 3D printability but also facilitates effective chondrogenic differentiation of mesenchymal stromal cells. A range of HA-SH with different molecular weights is synthesized and crosslinked with acrylated (PEG-diacryl) and allylated (PEG-diallyl) polyethylene glycol in a two-step reaction scheme. The initial Michael addition is used to achieve ink printability, followed by UV-mediated thiol–ene reaction to stabilize the printed bioink for long-term cell culture. Bioinks with high molecular weight HA-SH (>200 kDa) require comparably low polymer content to facilitate bioprinting. This leads to superior quality of cartilaginous constructs which possess a coherent ECM and a strongly increased stiffness of long-term cultured constructs. The dual-stage system may serve as an example to design platforms using two independent crosslinking reactions at one functional group, which allows adjusting printability as well as material and biological properties of bioinks.
Biofabrication, including printing technologies, has emerged as a powerful approach to the design of disease models, such as in cancer research. In breast cancer, adipose tissue has been acknowledged as an important part of the tumor microenvironment favoring tumor progression. Therefore, in this study, a 3D-printed breast cancer model for facilitating investigations into cancer cell-adipocyte interaction was developed. First, we focused on the printability of human adipose-derived stromal cell (ASC) spheroids in an extrusion-based bioprinting setup and the adipogenic differentiation within printed spheroids into adipose microtissues. The printing process was optimized in terms of spheroid viability and homogeneous spheroid distribution in a hyaluronic acid-based bioink. Adipogenic differentiation after printing was demonstrated by lipid accumulation, expression of adipogenic marker genes, and an adipogenic ECM profile. Subsequently, a breast cancer cell (MDA-MB-231) compartment was printed onto the adipose tissue constructs. After nine days of co-culture, we observed a cancer cell-induced reduction of the lipid content and a remodeling of the ECM within the adipose tissues, with increased fibronectin, collagen I and collagen VI expression. Together, our data demonstrate that 3D-printed breast cancer-adipose tissue models can recapitulate important aspects of the complex cell–cell and cell–matrix interplay within the tumor-stroma microenvironment
Background
Fibrosis poses a substantial setback in regenerative medicine. Histopathologically, fibrosis is an excessive accumulation of collagen affected by myofibroblasts and this can occur in any tissue that is exposed to chronic injury or insult. Transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1, a crucial mediator of fibrosis, drives differentiation of fibroblasts into myofibroblasts. These cells exhibit α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) and synthesize high amounts of collagen I, the major extracellular matrix (ECM) component of fibrosis. While hormones stimulate cells in a pulsatile manner, little is known about cellular response kinetics upon growth factor impact. We therefore studied the effects of short TGF-β1 pulses in terms of the induction and maintenance of the myofibroblast phenotype.
Results
Twenty-four hours after a single 30 min TGF-β1 pulse, transcription of fibrogenic genes was upregulated, but subsided 7 days later. In parallel, collagen I secretion rate and α-SMA presence were elevated for 7 days. A second pulse 24 h later extended the duration of effects to 14 days. We could not establish epigenetic changes on fibrogenic target genes to explain the long-lasting effects. However, ECM deposited under singly pulsed TGF-β1 was able to induce myofibroblast features in previously untreated fibroblasts. Dependent on the age of the ECM (1 day versus 7 days’ formation time), this property was diminished. Vice versa, myofibroblasts were cultured on fibroblast ECM and cells observed to express reduced (in comparison with myofibroblasts) levels of collagen I.
Conclusions
We demonstrated that short TGF-β1 pulses can exert long-lasting effects on fibroblasts by changing their microenvironment, thus leaving an imprint and creating a reciprocal feed-back loop. Therefore, the ECM might act as mid-term memory for pathobiochemical events. We would expect this microenvironmental memory to be dependent on matrix turnover and, as such, to be erasable. Our findings contribute to the current understanding of fibroblast induction and maintenance, and have bearing on the development of antifibrotic drugs.
Die Anpassung des Aktinzytoskeletts an extrazelluläre Gewebsstrukturen ist Voraussetzung für die Interaktion mit der extrazellulären Matrix und für die Zellbewegung, einschließlich der Invasion und Metastasierung von Tumorzellen. Wir untersuchten bei invasiven B16/F1 GFP-Aktin Mausmelanomzellen, ob und wie sich Zellform, Art und Effizienz der Bewegung an physikalisch unterschiedlich beschaffene kollagenöse Umgebungen anpassen: 1) mit Kollagen-Monomeren beschichtete 2D Objektträger, 2) 2D Oberfläche einer fibrillären Kollagenmatrix und 3) Zellen, die in einer 3D Kollagenmatrix eingebettet waren. Zur Darstellung des Aktinzytoskeletts wurden Zellen eingesetzt, die GFP-Aktin Fusionsprotein exprimierten, und mittels Zeitraffer-Videomikroskopie und Konfokalmikroskopie untersucht. Im direkten Vergleich waren Struktur und Dynamik des Aktinzytoskelett wie auch Zellform und Art der Migration unterschiedlich in den verschiedenen Umgebungen. Auf 2D planer Oberfläche erfolgte eine rasche Adhäsion und Abflachung der Zellen (Spreading) mit nachfolgender Migration mit Bildung fokaler Adhäsionszonen, in die kabelartige Aktinstrukturen (Stress fibers) einstrahlten. Dagegen entwickelte sich in 3D Kollagenmatrices eine spindelförmige, fibroblastenähnliche Zellform (mesenchymal) mit zylindrischen fingerförmigen vorderen Pseudopodien, die Zug der Zelle nach vorne bewirken und hochdynamisches polymeres Aktin, nicht jedoch Stress Fibers enthielten. Eine ähnliche Zellform und Struktur des Zytoskeletts entwickelte sich in Zellen auf 2D fibrillärem Kollagen. Die Kontaktfindung und Migrationseffizienz auf oder in fibrillären Matrices war im Vergleich zu 2D kollagenbeschichteter Oberfläche erschwert, die Migrationseffizienz verringert. In Kontrollversuchen wurden Migration und polarisierte Bildung von Aktindynamik durch Inhibitoren des Aktinzytoskeletts (Cytochalasin D, Latrunculin B, Jasplakinolide) stark gehemmt. Diese Befunde zeigen , dass die Struktur und Dynamik des Aktinzytoskeletts sowie die Art der Migration in Tumorzellen stärker als bisher angenommen durch die umgebende Kollagenstruktur bestimmt wird. Während 3D Kollagenmatrices in vivo ähnliche bipolare Zytoskelettstruktur fördern, müssen Abflachung der Zellen mit Bildung von Stress Fibers als spezifische Charakteristika von 2D Modellen angesehen werden.
Background: Tumor necrosis factor-like weak inducer of apoptosis (TWEAK) and its receptor fibroblast growth factorinducible 14 (Fn14) are upregulated after myocardial infarction (MI) in both humans and mice. They modulate inflammation and the extracellular matrix, and could therefore be important for healing and remodeling after MI. However, the function of TWEAK after MI remains poorly defined.
Methods and results: Following ligation of the left coronary artery, mice were injected twice per week with a recombinant human serum albumin conjugated variant of TWEAK (HSA-Flag-TWEAK), mimicking the activity of soluble TWEAK. Treatment with HSA-Flag-TWEAK resulted in significantly increased mortality in comparison to the placebo group due to myocardial rupture. Infarct size, extracellular matrix remodeling, and apoptosis rates were not different after MI. However, HSA-Flag-TWEAK treatment increased infiltration of proinflammatory cells into the myocardium. Accordingly, depletion of neutrophils prevented cardiac ruptures without modulating all-cause mortality.
Conclusion: Treatment of mice with HSA-Flag-TWEAK induces myocardial healing defects after experimental MI. This is mediated by an exaggerated neutrophil infiltration into the myocardium.
Solid tumors are complex organ-like structures that consist not only of tumor cells but also of vasculature, extracellular matrix (ECM), stromal, and immune cells. Often, this tumor microenvironment (TME) comprises the larger part of the overall tumor mass. Like the other components of the TME, the ECM in solid tumors differs significantly from that in normal organs. Intratumoral signaling, transport mechanisms, metabolisms, oxygenation, and immunogenicity are strongly affected if not controlled by the ECM. Exerting this regulatory control, the ECM does not only influence malignancy and growth of the tumor but also its response toward therapy. Understanding the particularities of the ECM in solid tumor is necessary to develop approaches to interfere with its negative effect. In this review, we will also highlight the current understanding of the physical, cellular, and molecular mechanisms by which the pathological tumor ECM affects the efficiency of radio-, chemo-, and immunotherapy. Finally, we will discuss the various strategies to target and modify the tumor ECM and how they could be utilized to improve response to therapy.
In the last years it became evident that many cytokines do not only bind to their specific cell surface receptors but also interact with components of the extracellular matrix. Mainly in Drosophila, several enzymes were identified, that are involved in glycosaminoglycan synthesis. Mutations in these enzymes mostly result in disturbances of several signaling pathways like hedgehog, wingless, FGF or dpp. In most cases it was, due to these pleiotropic effects, not possible to examine the relevance of matrix interactions for single pathways. The aim of this work was to examine the relevance of matrix interactions for the TGF-ß superfamily member DPP. Based on the fact that DPP is highly homologous to human BMP-2, the basic N-terminus of mature DPP was mutated, which has been shown to contain a heparin-binding site in BMP-2. Thus, a wildtype variant (D-MYC), a deletion variant (D-DEL), which lacked the whole basic part of the N-terminus and a duplication variant (D-DUP), which contained a second copy of the basic core moitiv, were generated. In order to characterise the variants biochemically, they were expressed in E.coli and refolded in a bioactive form. In chicken limbbud assay, the deletion variant was much more active than the wildtype variant, comparable to data of BMP-2. By means of biacore mesurements with the immobilised ectodomain of the high affinity type I receptor thick veins, it could be demonstrated, that the variants differ only in matrix binding and not in their receptor affinity. Different matrix binding was shown by Heparin FPLC. The biological relevance of the matrix interaction of DPP was examined in transgenic flies. To allow expression of the different variants under the control of various Gal4 driver lines, they were cloned behind an UAS-promoter site. In early tracheal development, a strong dependence of DPP signaling on matrix binding was observed. While ectopic expression of the deletion variant caused only minor defects, the branching pattern was strongly disturbed by overexpression of wildtype and duplication variant. Ubiquitous expression of the variants in the wing imaginal disc caused overproliferation of the disc and expansion of the omb target gene expression. The extent of phenotypes correlated with the matrix binding ability of the variants. Corresponding disturbances of the wing vein pattern was observed in adult flies. By the crossing of different dpp allels, transheterozygous animals were created, that lack dpp only in imaginal discs. Expression of the variants under the control of a suitable dpp-Gal4 driver line revealed insights into the biological relevance of matrix binding on DPP gradient formation and specific target gene activation in wing imaginal discs. It was shown, that all variants were able to generate a functional DPP gradient with correct expression of the target genes omb and spalt. Again a correlation between extent of target gene domains and matrix binding ability of the corresponding variants was found. Thus by mutating the N-terminus of DPP, it could be shown that this is responsible for DPP`s matrix interaction. Also the relevance of matrix binding of DPP in different tissues was examined. It turned out, that the reorganisation of tracheal branching by DPP strongly depends on matrix interactions wheras the establishing of a gradient in wing imaginal discs depends only gradually on matrix interactions. Based on these data a model for the action of DPP/TGFßs as morphogens was established. While a deletion of matrix binding leads to a decrease in specific bioactivity of the cytokine, the latter is increased by additional matrix binding sites.
Immortalized hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) established from mouse, rat, and humans are valuable in vitro models for the biomedical investigation of liver biology. These cell lines are homogenous, thereby providing consistent and reproducible results. They grow more robustly than primary HSCs and provide an unlimited supply of proteins or nucleic acids for biochemical studies. Moreover, they can overcome ethical concerns associated with the use of animal and human tissue and allow for fostering of the 3R principle of replacement, reduction, and refinement proposed in 1959 by William M. S. Russell and Rex L. Burch. Nevertheless, working with continuous cell lines also has some disadvantages. In particular, there are ample examples in which genetic drift and cell misidentification has led to invalid data. Therefore, many journals and granting agencies now recommend proper cell line authentication. We herein describe the genetic characterization of the rat HSC line HSC-T6, which was introduced as a new in vitro model for the study of retinoid metabolism. The consensus chromosome markers, outlined primarily through multicolor spectral karyotyping (SKY), demonstrate that apart from the large derivative chromosome 1 (RNO1), at least two additional chromosomes (RNO4 and RNO7) are found to be in three copies in all metaphases. Additionally, we have defined a short tandem repeat (STR) profile for HSC-T6, including 31 species-specific markers. The typical features of these cells have been further determined by electron microscopy, Western blotting, and Rhodamine-Phalloidin staining. Finally, we have analyzed the transcriptome of HSC-T6 cells by mRNA sequencing (mRNA-Seq) using next generation sequencing (NGS).