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Evolution of antifungal drug resistance of the human-pathogenic fungus \(Candida\) \(albicans\)
(2021)
Infections with the opportunistic yeast Candida albicans are frequently treated with the first-line drug fluconazole, which inhibits ergosterol biosynthesis. An alarming problem in clinics is the development of resistances against this azole, especially during long-term treatment of patients. Well-known resistance mechanisms include mutations in the zinc cluster transcription factors (ZnTFs) Mrr1 and Tac1, which cause an overexpression of efflux pump genes, and Upc2, which results in an overexpression of the drug target. C. albicans strains with such gain-of-function mutations (GOF) have an increased drug resistance conferring a selective advantage in the presence of the drug. It was previously shown that this advantage comes with a fitness defect in the absence of the drug. This was observed in different conditions and is presumably caused by a deregulated gene expression.
One aim of the present study was to examine whether C. albicans can overcome the costs of drug resistance by further evolution. Therefore, the relative fitness of clinical isolates with one or a combination of different resistance mutations in Mrr1, Tac1 and/or Upc2 was analyzed in competition with the matched fluconazole-susceptible partner. Most fluconazole-resistant isolates had a decreased fitness in competition with their susceptible partner in vitro in rich medium. In contrast, three fluconazole-resistant strains with Mrr1 resistance mutations did not show a fitness defect in competition with their susceptible partner. In addition, the fitness of four selected clinical isolate pairs was examined in vivo in mouse models of gastrointestinal colonization (GI) and disseminated infection (IV). In the GI model all four fluconazole-resistant strains were outcompeted by their respective susceptible partner. In contrast, in the IV model only one out of four fluconazole-resistant isolates did show a slight fitness defect in competition with its susceptible partner during infection of the kidneys. It can be stated, that in the present work the in vitro fitness did not reflect the in vivo fitness and that the overall fitness was dependent on the tested conditions. In conclusion, C. albicans cannot easily overcome the costs of drug resistance caused by a deregulated gene expression.
In addition to GOFs in Mrr1, Tac1 and Upc2, resistance mutations in the drug target Erg11 are a further key fluconazole resistance mechanism of C. albicans. Clinical isolates often harbor several resistance mechanisms, as the fluconazole resistance level is further increased in strains with a combination of different resistance mutations. In this regard, the question arises of how strains with multiple resistance mechanisms evolve. One possibility is that strains acquire mutations successively. In the present study it was examined whether highly drug-resistant C. albicans strains with multiple resistance mechanisms can evolve by parasexual recombination as another possibility. In a clonal population, cells with individually acquired resistance mutations could combine these advantageous traits by mating. Thereupon selection could act on the mating progeny resulting in even better adapted derivatives.
Therefore, strains heterozygous for a resistance mutation and the mating type locus (MTL) were grown in the presence of fluconazole. Derivatives were isolated, which had become homozygous for the resistance mutation and at the same time for the MTL. This loss of heterozygosity was accompanied by increased drug resistance. In general, strains which are homozygous for one of both MTL configurations (MTLa and MTLα) can switch to the opaque phenotype, which is the mating-competent form of the yeast, and mate with cells of the opposite MTL. In the following, MTLa and MTLα homozygous strains in the opaque phenotype were mated in all possible combinations. The resulting mating products with combined genetic material from both parents did not show an increased drug resistance. Selected products of each mating cross were passaged with stepwise increasing concentrations of fluconazole. The isolated progeny showed high levels of drug resistance and loss of wild-type alleles of resistance-associated genes. In conclusion, selective pressure caused by fluconazole exposure selects for resistance mutations and at the same time induces genomic rearrangements, resulting in mating competence. Therefore, in a clonal population, cells with individually acquired resistance mutations can mate with each other and generate mating products with combined genetic backgrounds. Selection can act on these mating products and highly drug-resistant und thus highly adapted derivatives can evolve as a result.
In summary, the present study contributes to the current understanding of the evolution of antifungal drug resistance by elucidating the effect of resistance mutations on the fitness of the strains in the absence of the drug selection pressure and investigates how highly drug-resistant strains could evolve within a mammalian host.
One of the fascinating features of meiotic prophase I, is the highly conserved
vigorous movements of homologous chromosomes. These movements are
critical for the success of essential events as homologs alignment, synapsis and
recombination. Several organisms studied so far, including mammals, worms,
yeast and plants achieve these movements by anchoring the chromosome ends
to specialized sites in the nuclear envelope (NE). This attachment requires
telomere adaptor proteins which have to date been identified in fission yeast
and mice.
The mouse meiosis-specific telomere adaptor proteins TERB1, TERB2, and
MAJIN are involved in the attachment of ubiquitous shelterin telomere to the
LINC complex, in an analogous mechanism as those described in fission yeast.
Despite the essential role of meiosis-specific telomere adaptor proteins, the
precise mechanism of anchorage of telomeres to the nuclear envelope, as well
as their evolutionary history, are still not well understood. Therefore, the main
aim of this thesis is to investigate the organization of the mouse meiosis-specific
telomere adaptor complex TERB1-TERB2-MAJIN and its evolutionary history.
In the first part of this thesis high-resolution Structured Illumination Microscopy
(SIM), indirect immunofluorescence and Telo-FISH on mouse spermatocytes
were used to determine precisely how the telomere complex proteins are
localized with relation to the shelterin telomeric TRF1 protein and telomeric
DNA. During zygotene and pachytene stages staining patterns revealed
extensively overlapping of meiotic telomere complex proteins distributions in
which TERB2 organization is more heterogeneous than TERB1 and MAJIN at
the chromosome ends. Further, TRF1 localization was shown at the side of
lateral elements (LEs) ends with grasp-like distribution surrounding the TERB1
and MAJIN signals in zygotene and pachytene stages. Interestingly, telomeric
DNA was shown to be laterally distributed and partially overlapping with the
more central distribution displayed by meiotic telomere complex proteins of LEs
ends. The combination of these results allowed to describe an alternative model
of the telomere attachment to the NE during meiotic prophase I. The second part of this thesis, analyses mouse TERB1, TERB2, and MAJIN
evolutionary history. The lack of similarity between mouse and fission yeast
meiotic-specific telomere adaptor proteins has raised the question about the
origin of this specific complex through evolution. To identify mouse TERB1,
TERB2, and MAJIN putative orthologues, computational approaches and
phylogenetic analyses were performed. Besides, to test their potential function
during meiosis, expression studies were conducted. From these analyses, it was
revealed that mouse meiosis-specific telomere complex is ancient, as it
originated as early as eumetazoans pointing to a single origin. The absence of
any homologs in Nematoda and only a few candidates detected in Arthropoda
for meiosis-specific telomere complex, seemed, that these proteins have been
lost/replaced or highly diversified in these lineages. Remarkably, TERB1, TERB2,
and MAJIN protein domains involved in the formation of the complex as well as
those required for the interaction with the telomere shelterin protein and the
LINC complexes revealed high sequence similarity across all clades. Finally,
gene expression in the cnidarian Hydra Vulgaris provided evidence that the
TERB1-TERB2-MAJIN complex is selectively expressed in the germline
suggesting conservation of meiotic functions across metazoan evolution.
In summary, this thesis provides significant insights into the meiosis-specific
telomere complex mechanism to engage telomeres to the nuclear envelope and
the elucidation of its origin in metazoans.
Potential evolutionary responses to landscape heterogeneity and systematic environmental trends
(2020)
Over the course of the last century, humans have witnessed drastic levels of global environmental change that endangered both, the survival of single species as well as biodiversity itself. This includes climate change, in both environmental means and in variance and subsequently frequent extreme weather events, as well as land use change that species have to cope with.
With increasing urbanization, increasing agricultural area and increasing intensification, natural habitat is not only lost, but also changes its shape and distribution in the landscape. Both aspects can heavily influence an individual's fitness and therefore act as a selective force promoting evolutionary change.
This way climate change influences individuals' niches and dispersal. Local adaptation and dispersal are not independent of each other. Dispersal can have two opposite effects on local adaptation. It can oppose local adaptation, by promoting the immigration of maladapted indi-
viduals or favor local adaptation by introducing better adapted genotypes. Which of those effects of dispersal on local adaptation emerges in a population depends on the dispersal strategies and the spatial structure of the landscape. In principle an adaptive response can include adjustment of the niche optimum as well as habitat tolerance (niche width) or (instead) ecological tracking of adequate conditions by dispersal and range shifting. So
far, there has been no extensive modeling study of the evolution of the environmental niche optimum and tolerance along with dispersal probability in complex landscapes. Either only dispersal or (part of ) the environmental niche can evolve or the landscapes used are not realistic but rather a very abstract representation of spatial structures.
I want to try and disentangle those different effects of both local adaptation and dispersal during global change, as well as their interaction, especially considering the separation between the effects of increasing mean and increasing variance. For this, I implemented an individual based model (IBM), with escalating complexity.
I showed that both on a temporal as well as on a spatial scale, variation can be more influential then mean conditions.
Indeed, the actual spatial configuration of this heterogeneity and the relationship between spatial and temporal heterogeneity affect the evolution of the niche and of dispersal probability more than temporal or spatial mean conditions. I could show that in isolated populations, an increase of an environmental attribute's mean or variance can lead to extinction, under certain conditions. In particular, increasing variance cannot be tracked forever, since increasing tolerance has distinct limits of feasibility. Increasing mean conditions can also occur too fast to be tracked, especially from generalist individuals. When expanding the model to the metapopulation level without a temporal environmental trend, the degree of spatial vs.temporal heterogeneity influenced the evolution of random dispersal heavily. With increasing spatial heterogeneity, individuals from extreme and rare patches
evolve from being philopatric to dispersive, while individuals from average patches switch in the opposite direction.
With the last expansion to a different set of landscapes with varying degrees of edge density, I could show that edge effects are strong in pseudo-agricultural landscapes, while
in pseudo-natural habitats they were hardly found, regardless of emigration strategy. Sharp edges select against dispersal in the edge patches and could potentially further isolate populations in agricultural landscapes.
The work I present here can also be expanded further and I present several suggestions on what to do next. These expansions could help the realism of the model and eventually shed light on its bearing on ecological global change predictions. For example species distribution models or extinction risk models would be more precise, if they included both spatial and temporal variation. The current modeling practices might not be suffcient to
describe the possible outcomes of global change, because spatio-temporal heterogeneity and its influence on species' niches is too important to be ignored for longer.
In this thesis, three species were investigated for the conservation of two non-conventional T cell systems, the CD1d/ iNKT cell system and the BTN3/ Vγ9Vδ2 T cell system. Non-conventional T cells are αβ or γδ T cells that do not fit into the classical mode of antigen recognition and adaptive responses. These T cells recognize antigens different from classical peptide antigens and are not restricted to the polymorphic MHC molecules but rather to non-polymorphic antigen-presenting molecules. The iNKT cell subset is restricted by the lipid antigen-presenting molecule CD1d and carries out immunomodulatory functions by rapid cytokine secretion. The molecular basis of this system, the semi-invariant iNKT TCR chains and CD1d were proven to be expressed and compared to homologs in human and rodents. Cotton rats possess multiple members of the AV14 and BV8 family and only one isoform of CD1d which is comparable to findings in the rat.
Moreover, the reactivity of primary cells to glycolipid antigens could be shown, and an iNKT
cell-like population was detected in primary cells using newly developed cotton rat CD1d oligomers. These were also applied to test the capacity of CD1d to present typical glycolipid
antigens to iNKT TCR transductants. In addition, expression of cotton rat iNKT TCR α and β chains in TCR-negative cell lines was used to show successful pairing and detection of glycolipids in the context of CD1d. In summary, the conservation of a functional CD1d/iNKT cell system in the cotton rat could be shown, and tools were developed to study this cell subset in the course of infectious diseases. The Vγ9Vδ2 T cell subset is the major γδ T cell subset in human peripheral blood and has the unique ability to contribute to immune surveillance by detecting pyrophosphorylated metabolites of isoprenoid synthesis that indicate cell stress, transformation or infection. Up to this date, phosphoantigen-reactive γδ T cells have only been shown in primate species. However, evidence for the existence and functional conservation of the genes implied in the BTN3/Vγ9Vδ2 T cell system was found in several placental mammal species,
and two candidate species were chosen for further investigation. The nine-banded armadillo, a valuable model for leprosy research, was shown to possess homologous genes to TRGV9, TRDV2 and BTN3. In this study, the expression of productive rearrangements of TRDV2 gene segments could be shown in peripheral blood samples, but no evidence was found for the expression of a functional TRGV9 rearrangement or BTN3 molecules. Moreover, determinants of phosphoantigen-reactive Vγ9Vδ2 T cells and functional BTN3 molecules were found to still be prevalent in armadillo genes. This makes the armadillo an interesting model to study the structural determinants that allow phosphoantigen recognition by a functional Vγ9Vδ2 T cell subset although this species is merely a witness for a functional system in a placental mammal ancestor. In contrast, alpacas were shown to express functional Vγ9Vδ2 T cells which conserved many features of the human counterpart. Expression of Vγ9Vδ2 pairings could be shown by single-cell PCR and functional phosphoantigenreactive pairings were observed. This phosphoantigen reactivity was also shown in PBMC cultures with a newly developed antibody specific for alpaca Vδ2Jδ4 chains. Moreover, a more detailed study of the alpaca TCR repertoire showed similarities to “γδ high” species like
camelids and cattle which possess an extended family of TRDV genes. The γ and δ loci of alpaca
TCR genes were drafted based on genomic information and cDNA studies and provide an overview for more detailed studies. Conservation of phosphoantigen recognition by the single BTN3 molecule of alpacas was shown in 293T knock out cell lines, and BTN3 detection on PBMCs was investigated with a newly developed alpaca BTN3-specific antibody. These findings prove the existence of a functional BTN3-dependent phosphoantigen-reactive Vγ9Vδ2 T cell subset and provide a basis for the future study of this cell system in a non-primate species. Moreover, as the first non-primate candidate species with the BTN3/Vγ9Vδ2 T cell system the alpaca is an important outgroup for research in this field. The use of a single BTN3 variant in contrast to three human isoforms that work together renders the alpaca a unique and to this date indispensable model for Vγ9Vδ2 T cells.
In conclusion, this study provides an overview of the applicability of new animal models in the
study of the non-conventional T cell subsets iNKT cells and Vγ9Vδ2 T cells and leads the way for a better understanding of structural and functional relationships.
Die Evolution der Primaten zeigt eine Verbindung zwischen der zunehmenden Komplexität des sozialen Verhaltens und der Vergrößerung des humanen Gehirns, insbesondere des präfrontalen Cortex. Deshalb stellt der präfrontale Cortex bezüglich der Evolution des Menschen eine der interessantesten Strukturen im humanen Gehirn dar. Es wird angenommen, dass nicht allein die Größe, sondern auch die Funktion, vor allem das Zusammenspiel von Neuronen und nicht-neuronalen Zellen, wie z.B. Gliazellen, zur Differenzierung des menschlichen Gehirns von dem rezenter Primaten geführt hat. Daraus lässt sich schließen, dass die Gehirnfunktionen über eine ausgeglichene und gut aufeinander abgestimmte transkriptionelle Landschaft kontrolliert werden, die durch ein zugrundeliegendes genetisches und epigentisches Rückgrat organisiert ist. In dieser Studie wurden das Methylierungsprofil neuronaler und nicht-neuronaler Zellen des präfrontalen Cortex (Brodmann-Areal 10) von drei Menschen und drei Schimpansen miteinander verglichen. Die intra- und interspezifischen differenziell methylierten Regionen (DMRs) waren in bestimmten genomischen Regionen angereichert. Intraspezifische Methylierungsunterschiede zwischen neuronalen und nicht-neuronalen Zellen konnten dreimal häufiger beobachtet werden als interspezifische Unterschiede in den einzelnen Zelltypen. Rund 90% der humanen intraspezifischen DMRs wiesen eine Hypomethylierung in den neuronalen Zellen im Vergleich zu den nicht-neuronalen Zellen auf. In den intraspezifischen DMRs (Mensch und Schimpanse) waren Gene angereichert, die mit verschiedenen neuropsychiatrischen Erkrankungen assoziiert sind. Der Vergleich zwischen Menschen und Schimpanse in den neuronalen und nicht-neuronalen Zelltypen zeigte eine Anreicherung von Genen mit human-spezifischer Histonsignatur. In den nicht-neuronalen Zellen konnten mehr interspezifische DMRs (n=666) detektiert werden als in den neuronalen Zellen (n=96). Ungefähr 95% der nicht-neuronalen interspezifischen DMRs waren im Menschen, im Vergleich zum Schimpansen, hypermethyliert. Daraus ergibt sich der Eindruck, dass mehrere hundert der nicht-neuronalen Gene während der humanen Gehirnevolution einer Methylierungswelle unterlagen. Dies führt zu der Annahme, dass der Einfluss dieser Veränderungen in den nicht-neuronalen Zellen auf die Vergößerung des menschlichen Gehirns bisher stark unterschätzt wurde.
Die bekannteste genetische Ursache für erblichen Brust- und Eierstockkrebs sind Mutationen in den Tumorsuppressorgenen (TSG) BRCA1 und BRCA2. Dennoch können nur rund 20-25% der familiären Brustkrebserkrankungen über Keimbahnmutationen in BRCA1/BRCA2 erklärt werden, besonders bei Frauen, deren Erkrankung vor dem vierzigsten Lebensjahr auftritt. Epigenetische Veränderungen, die zu einer aberranten Genexpression führen, spielen ebenfalls eine wichtige Rolle bei der Karzinogenese und der Entwicklung einer Brustkrebserkrankung. Es ist bekannt, dass TSG nicht nur durch den Verlust der Heterozygotie (engl. loss of heterozygosity, LOH) oder homozygote Deletionen, sondern auch durch transkriptionelle Stilllegung via DNA-Methylierung inaktiviert werden können. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurde überprüft, welchen Einfluss aberrante Methylierungsmuster im Promotorbereich von TSG auf die Brustkrebskarzinogenese und die Expression der Gene haben. Für die Quantifizierung der Epimutationen wurden die Promotorbereiche von acht TSG (BRCA1, BRCA2, RAD51C, ATM, PTEN, TP53, MLH1, RB1) und des estrogene receptor (ESR1) Gens, welches eine Rolle in der Tumorprogression spielt, mittels Deep Bisulfite Amplicon Sequencing (DBAS) analysiert. Es wurden Blutproben von zwei unabhängigen BRCA1/BRCA2-mutationsnegativen Brustkrebs (BC)-Patientenkohorten, sowie von zwei unabhängigen alters-gematchten, gesunden Kontrollkohorten untersucht. BC-Kohorte 1 beinhaltet early-onset (EO) BC-Patientinnen. Kohorte 2 enthält BC-Patientinnen mit einem Risiko von >95% eine heterozygote Mutation in BRCA1/BRCA2 (high-risk, HR) zu tragen. Allele mit >50% methylierten CpGs werden als funktionell relevante Epimutationen erachtet, da bekannt ist, dass TSG über eine Methylierung im Promotorbereich transkriptionell stillgelegt werden. Im Vergleich zu ESR1 (Ø Methylierung, 3%), welches die Methylierungslevel eines durchschnittlichen Promotors wiederspiegelt, zeigten die TSG sehr geringe durchschnittliche Methylierungswerte von weniger als 1%. Zudem waren die durchschnittlichen Epimutationsraten (EMR; <0,0001-0,1%) der TSG sehr gering. Mit der Ausnahme von BRCA1, welches eine erhöhte EMR in der BC-Kohorte verglichen zu den Kontrollen (0,31% gegen 0,06%) zeigte, gab es keine signifikanten Gruppenunterschiede zwischen BC-Patientinnen und Kontrollen. Eine von 36 HR BC-Patientinnen zeigte im Vergleich zu den restlichen Proben eine stark erhöhte EMR von 14,7% in BRCA1. Rund ein Drittel (15/44) der EO BC-Patientinnen wiesen eine erhöhte Rate an Einzel-CpG Fehlern in mehreren TSG auf. Die nachfolgenden Expressionsanalysen ergaben eine erniedrigte Expression vieler TSG je analysierter Patientin. Diese Ergebnisse führen zu der Annahme, dass epigenetische Veränderungen in normalen Körperzellen als ein möglicher Indikator für einen gestörten Mechanismus, der für die Aufrechterhaltung des unmethylierten Status und der daraus resultierenden normalen Genexpression zuständig ist, angesehen werden können. Dies kann mit einem erhöhten BC-Risiko assoziiert werden.
Die ersten Landpflanzen standen vor der Herausforderung sich mit der wechselnden Verfügbarkeit von Wasser an Land arrangieren zu müssen. Daraus ergab sich die Notwendigkeit den Wasserverlust zu minimieren und dennoch ausreichend CO2 für die Photosynthese aufzunehmen (Raven, 2002). Im Laufe der Evolution der Pflanzen entstanden mehrere Anpassungen an diese neuen Gegebenheiten, die schließlich auch zur Entstehung von regulierbaren Öffnungen, den Stomata, in der Blattepidermis führte. Zwei Schließzellen umschließen das Stoma und regulieren über die Aufnahme oder Abgabe von osmotisch-aktiven Teilchen ihren Turgordruck und damit die Öffnungsweite des Stomas. Das Kation Kalium und die Anionen Chlorid und Nitrat repräsentieren die Hauptosmotika, die je nach Bedarf durch Transportproteine über die Plasmamembran der Schließzellen geschleust werden. In den Samenpflanzen wie zum Beispiel der Modellpflanze Arabidopsis thaliana, ist der Signalweg in Schließzellen, der bei Trockenheit zu einem schnellen Schluss des Stomas führt bereits sehr gut untersucht. Bei Wassermangel synthetisiert die Pflanze das Trockenstresshormon ABA (Abscisinsäure). Das Hormon wird durch ABA-Rezeptoren erkannt und resultiert schließlich in der Aktivität der Proteinkinase OST1. Daraufhin reguliert diese Kinase zum einen die Transkription ABA-abhängiger Gene, die der Pflanze eine langfristige Adaptation an Trockenheit und Austrocknungstoleranz verleiht. Zum anderen, phosphoryliert OST1 den Anionenkanal SLAC1 und aktiviert ihn so. Die Aktivität des Kanals initiiert schließlich den Stomaschluss durch einen Ausstrom von Anionen aus den Schließzellen, der mit einer Depolarisation der Schließzellmembran einhergeht.
Der ABA-Signalweg, der zur transkriptionellen Regulation von Genen und der damit verbunden Trockentoleranz führt ist ein sehr stark konservierter und evolutiv sehr alter Signalweg, der in allen Geweben von Pflanzen bei Trockenheit beschritten wird. Der schnelle ABA-Signalweg, der die Aktivität der SLAC1 Anionenkanäle reguliert, ist auf Schließzellen begrenzt. Da sich Schließzellen aber erst spät in der Evolution von Landpflanzen etablierten, erhob sich die Frage, wann in der Evolution geriet SLAC1 unter die Kontrolle das ABA-Signalwegs? Geht diese Regulation von SLAC1 mit der Entstehung von Schließzellen einher oder bestand dieser Regulationsmechanismus bereits in Pflanzen, die keine Schließzellen besitzen. Zur Beantwortung dieser Frage untersuchte ich die einzelnen Komponenten des Signalwegs und ihre Beziehungen zu einander im heterologen Expressionssystem der Xenopus laevis Oozyten.
Im Laufe dieser Arbeit wurden Schlüsselelemente des ABA-Signalwegs aus sechs verschiedenen Versuchspflanzen kloniert und in Oozyten charakterisiert. Für die Untersuchung der Evolution des schnellen ABA-Signalwegs wurden die sechs Versuchspflanzen aus je einem rezenten Vertreter der Grünalgen (Klebsormidium nitens), der Lebermoose (Marchantia polymorpha), der Laubmoose (Physcomitrella patens), der Lycophyten (Selaginella moellendorffii) und der Farne (Ceratopteris richardii) ausgewählt und mit der Samenpflanze Arabidopsis thaliana verglichen. Die sechs Pflanzengruppen spalteten sich an unterschiedlichen Zeitpunkten im Laufe der pflanzlichen Evolution von der Entwicklung der restlichen Pflanzen ab und erlauben so einen bestmöglichen Einblick in den jeweiligen Entwicklungsstand der Landpflanzen während der Entstehung der einzelnen Pflanzenfamilien. Obwohl sich die ersten Stomata erst in den Laubmoosen entwickelten, besitzen schon die Grünalgen OST1-Kinasen und SLAC1-Kanäle. Interessanterweise konnte wir zeigen, dass schon die frühen OST1-Kinasen aus Algen und Moosen dazu in der Lage sind, in den höher entwickelten Samenpflanzen die Rolle in der Regulation der ABA-abhängigen Expression von Genen zu übernehmen. Außerdem zeigte sich im Laufe meiner biophysikalischen Untersuchungen, dass alle dreizehn getesteten OST1-Kinasen aus den sechs unterschiedlichen Versuchspflanzenarten in Lage sind, den Anionenkanal SLAC1 aus Arabidopsis in Xenopus Oozyten zu aktivieren. Diese Austauschbarkeit von den AtSLAC1-aktivierenden Kinasen deutet auf eine sehr starke Konservierung der Struktur und Funktion von OST1 hin. Anders verhielt es sich bei der funktionellen Analyse der Anionenkanäle aus den verschiedenen Versuchspflanzen: Hier bildete nur der evolutionär gesehen jüngsten SLAC-Kanal AtSLAC1 aus Arabidopsis ein funktionelles Pärchen mit OST1. Die SLAC1 Kanäle aus der Grünalge, dem Lebermoos, den Lycophyten und dem Farn blieben ohne messbare Aktivität bei einer Co-expression mit den verschiedenen OST1 Kinasen. Nur beim Laubmoos (Physcomitrella patens) konnte noch ein funktionelles Kinase-Anionenkanal Pärchen gefunden werden. Struktur-Funktionsuntersuchungen erlaubten mir schließlich zu zeigen, dass bestimmte funktionelle Domänen sowohl im N-terminus als auch im C-terminus von SLAC1 erforderlich sind, um eine Aktivierung des Kanals durch OST1 Kinasen sicherzustellen.
The synaptonemal complex (SC) is a highly conserved structure in sexually reproducing organism. It has a tripartite, ladder-like organization and mediates the stable pairing, called synapsis, of the homologous chromosomes during prophase of meiosis I. Failure in homolog synapsis result in aneuploidy and/or apoptosis of the developing germ cells.
Since 1956, the SC is subject of intense research and its presence was described in various species from yeast to human. Its structure was maintained during millions of years of evolution consist-ing of two parallel lateral elements (LEs), joined by numerous transverse filaments (TFs) which run perpendicular to the LEs and an electron dense central element (CE) in the middle of the SC. Individual protein components, however, were characterized only in few available model organ-isms, as for example Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Arabidopsis thaliana, Drosophila melanogaster, Ceanorhabditis elegans and Mus musculus. Rather unexpectedly, these characterizations failed to detect an evolutionary homology between the protein components of the different SCs. This fact challenged the general idea of a single origin of the SC in the evolution of meiosis and sexual reproduction.
This thesis now addressed itself to the task to unravel the discrepancy between the high conser-vation of the SC structure and its diverse and apparently non-homologous protein composition, focusing on the animal kingdom. It is the first study dealing with the evolution of the SC in Meta-zoa and demonstrates the monophyly of the mammalian SC components in metazoan species. The thesis demonstrates that at least four out of seven murine SC proteins emerged in Eumeta-zoa at the latest and have been likewise part of an ancient SC as it can be found in the present-day cnidarian species Hydra. This SC displays the common organization and already possesses the minimal protein kit corresponding to the three different structural domains: LEs, TFs and the CE. Additionally, the individual phylogenies of the murine SC proteins revealed the dynamic evolu-tionary history of the ancient SC. Further components were added during the diversification of Bilateria and vertebrates while ancestral proteins likely duplicated in the vertebrate lineage and diversified or got lost in the branch leading to ecdysozoan species. It is hypothesized that the apparently non-homologous SC proteins in D. melanogaster and C. elegans actually do derive from the ancient SC proteins but diversified beyond recognition during the fast evolution of Ar-thropoda and Nematoda.
The study proposes Hydra as an alternative invertebrate model system for meiosis and SC re-search to the standard organisms D. melanogaster and C. elegans. Recent results about the cni-darian SC as well as the possible application of standard methods is discussed and summarized in the concluding section.
Evolution of Vγ9Vδ2 T-cells
(2014)
Human Vγ9Vδ2 T cells are the major subset of blood γδ T cells and account for 1-5% of blood T cells. Pyrophosphorylated metabolites of isoprenoid biosynthesis are recognized by human Vγ9Vδ2 T cells and are called as phosphoantigens (PAg). Isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP) and (E)-4-Hydroxy-3-methyl-but-2-enyl pyrophosphate (HMBPP) are among the few well studied PAg. IPP is found in all organisms while HMBPP is a precursor of IPP found only in eubacteria, plants and apicomplexaen parasite. Interestingly, the PAg reactive Vγ9Vδ2 T cells are so far identified only in human and higher primates but not in rodents. Hence, Vγ9Vδ2 T cells are believed to be restricted to primates. With regard to PAg recognition, a Vγ9JP recombined TCRγ chain and certain CDR3 motifs of the TCR chain are mandatory. The BTN3A1 molecule is essential for a response to PAg. BTN3 is a trans-membrane protein belonging to butyrophilin family of proteins. Though BTN3A1 was found to be essential for PAg presentation, the exact molecular basis of PAg presentation still remains unclear.
This thesis presents new data on the evolution of Vγ9Vδ2 TCR and its ligands (BTN3) as well as the genetic basis of PAg presentation to Vγ9Vδ2 TCR.
The comprehensive analysis of genomic database sequences at NCBI and other public domain databases revealed for the first time that Vγ9, Vδ2 and BTN3 genes emerged and co-evolved along with the placental mammals. Vγ9, Vδ2 and BTN3 genes are scattered across mammalian species and not restricted to primates. But interestingly, all three genes are highly conserved between phylogenetically distinct species. Moreover, the distribution pattern of Vγ9, Vδ2 TCR genes and BTN3 genes suggests a functional association between these genes representing the TCR - ligand relationship. Alpaca (Vicugna pacos), a member of the camelid family, is one among the 6 candidate non-primate species which were found to possess functional Vγ9, Vδ2 and BTN3 genes.
From peripheral lymphocytes of alpaca, Vγ9 chain transcripts with a characteristic JP rearrangement and transcripts of Vδ2 chains with a CDR3 typical for PAg-reactive TCR were identified. The transduction of αβ TCR negative mouse thymoma BW cells with alpaca Vγ9 and Vδ2 TCR chains resulted in surface expression of the TCR complex as it was deduced from detection of cell surface expression of mouse CD3. Cross-linking of alpaca Vγ9Vδ2 TCR transductants with anti-CD3ε led to IL-2 production which confirmed that alpaca Vγ9 and Vδ2 TCR chains pair to form a functional TCR. Besides the conservation of human like Vγ9 and Vδ2 TCR chains, alpaca has conserved an orthologue for human BTN33A1 as well. Interestingly, the predicted PAg binding sites of human BTN3A1 was 100% conserved in deduced amino acid sequence of alpaca BTN3A1. All together alpaca is a promising candidate for further studies as it might have preserved Vγ9Vδ2 T cells to function in surveillance of stress and infections.
This thesis also provides the sequence of Vγ9Vδ2 TCR of African green monkey (Chlorocebus aethiops), which was previously unknown. Moreover, our data indicates the lack of any species specific barrier which could hinder the PAg presentation by African monkey derived COS cells to human Vγ9Vδ2 TCR and vice versa of human cells to African green monkey Vγ9Vδ2 TCR which was in contradiction to previously reported findings.
Apart from the above, the thesis also presents new data on the genetic basis of PAg presentation to Vγ9Vδ2 T cells, which revealed that human chromosome 6 is sufficient for the presentation of exogenous and endogenous PAg. By employing human/mouse somatic hybrids, we identified the role of human chromosome 6 in PAg presentation and in addition, we observed the lack of capacity of human chromosome 6 positive hybrids to activate Vγ9Vδ2 TCR transductants in the presence of the alkylamine sec-butylamine (SBA). Investigation of Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells containing the human chromosome 6 also yielded similar results. This suggests that aminobisphosphonates (zoledronate) and alkylamines employ different mechanisms for activation of Vγ9Vδ2 T cells although both have been described to act by inhibition of farnesyl pyrophosphate synthase activity which is known to increase intracellular levels of the IPP.
In conclusion, this thesis suggests that Vγ9, Vδ2 and BTN3 genes controlling Vγ9Vδ2 TCR- ligand relationship emerged and co-evolved along with placental mammals; and also identified candidate non-primate species which could possess Vγ9Vδ2 T cells. Furthermore, it suggests alpaca as a promising non-primate species to investigate the physiological function of Vγ9Vδ2 T cells. With respect to PAg antigen presentation it was shown that chromosome 6 is essential and sufficient for exogenous and endogenous PAg presentation. Moreover, the alkylamine SBA and aminobisphosphonate zoledronate may engage different cellular mechanism to exert inhibition over IPP consumption. The thesis raises interesting questions which need to be addressed in future: 1) What are the environmental and evolutionary factors involved in preservation of Vγ9Vδ2 T cells only by few species? 2) What could be the functional nature and antigen recognition properties of such a conserved T cell subset? 3) What is the genetic and molecular basis of the differential capacity of human chromosome 6 bearing rodent-human hybridoma cells in activating Vγ9Vδ2 T cells in presence of SBA and aminobisphosphonates?
Bees have had an intimate relationship with humans for millennia, as pollinators of fruit, vegetable and other crops and suppliers of honey, wax and other products. This relationship has led to an extensive understanding of their ecology and behavior. One of the most comprehensively understood species is the Western honeybee, Apis mellifera. Our understanding of sex-specific investment in other bees, however, has remained superficial. Signals and cues employed in bee foraging and mating behavior are reasonably well understood in only a handful of species and functional adaptations are described in some species. I explored the variety of sensory adaptations in three model systems within the bees. Females share a similar ecology and similar functional morphologies are to be expected. Males, engage mainly in mating behavior. A variety of male mating strategies has been described which differ in their spatiotemporal features and in the signals and cues involved, and thus selection pressures. As a consequence, males’ sensory systems are more diverse than those of females. In the first part I studied adaptations of the visual system in honeybees. I compared sex and caste-specific eye morphology among 5 species (Apis andreniformis, A. cerana, A. dorsata, A. florea, A. mellifera). I found a strong correlation between body size and eye size in both female castes. Queens have a relatively reduced visual system which is in line with the reduced role of visual perception in their life history. Workers differed in eye size and functional morphology, which corresponds to known foraging differences among species. In males, the eyes are conspicuously enlarged in all species, but a disproportionate enlargement was found in two species (A. dorsata, A. florea). I further demonstrate a correlation between male visual parameters and mating flight time, and propose that light intensities play an important role in the species-specific timing of mating flights. In the second study I investigated eye morphology differences among two phenotypes of drones in the Western honeybee. Besides normal-sized drones, smaller drones are reared in the colony, and suffer from reduced reproductive success. My results suggest that the smaller phenotype does not differ in spatial resolution of its visual system, but suffers from reduced light and contrast sensitivity which may exacerbate the reduction in reproductive success caused by other factors. In the third study I investigated the morphology of the visual system in bumblebees. I explored the association between male eye size and mating behavior and investigated the diversity of compound eye morphology among workers, queens and males in 11 species. I identified adaptations of workers that correlate with distinct foraging differences among species. Bumblebee queens must, in contrast to honeybees, fulfill similar tasks as workers in the first part of their life, and correspondingly visual parameters are similar among both female castes. Enlarged male eyes are found in several subgenera and have evolved several times independently within the genus, which I demonstrate using phylogenetic informed statistics. Males of these species engage in visually guided mating behavior. I find similarities in the functional eye morphology among large-eyed males in four subgenera, suggesting convergent evolution as adaptation to similar visual tasks. In the remaining species, males do not differ significantly from workers in their eye morphology. In the fourth study I investigated the sexual dimorphism of the visual system in a solitary bee species. Males of Eucera berlandi patrol nesting sites and compete for first access to virgin females. Males have enlarged eyes and better spatial resolution in their frontal eye region. In a behavioral study, I tested the effect of target size and speed on male mate catching success. 3-D reconstructions of the chasing flights revealed that angular target size is an important parameter in male chasing behavior. I discuss similarities to other insects that face similar problems in visual target detection. In the fifth study I examined the olfactory system of E. berlandi. Males have extremely long antennae. To investigate the anatomical grounds of this elongation I studied antennal morphology in detail in the periphery and follow the sexual dimorphism into the brain. Functional adaptations were found in males (e.g. longer antennae, a multiplication of olfactory sensilla and receptor neurons, hypertrophied macroglomeruli, a numerical reduction of glomeruli in males and sexually dimorphic investment in higher order processing regions in the brain), which were similar to those observed in honeybee drones. The similarities and differences are discussed in the context of solitary vs. eusocial lifestyle and the corresponding consequences for selection acting on males.
A metacommunity approach will be a useful framework to assess and predict changes in biodiversity in spatially structured landscapes and changing environments. However, the relationship between two core elements of metacommunity dynamics, dispersal and species interaction are not well understood. Most theoretical studies on dispersal evolution assume that target species are in isolation and do not interact with other species although the species interactions and community structure should have strong interdependence with dispersal. On the one hand, a species interaction can change the cost and benefit structure of dispersing in relation to non-dispersing individuals. On the other hand, with dispersal, an individual can follow respectively avoid species partners. Moreover, it is also important to explore the interdependence between dispersal and species interaction with spatial and temporal heterogeneity of environment because it would allow us to gain more understanding about responses of community to disturbances such as habitat destruction or global climate change, and this aspect is up to now not well-studied. In this thesis, I focus on the interactive and evolutionary feedback effects between dispersal and various types of interspecific interactions in different environmental settings. More specifically, I contrast dispersal evolution in scenarios with different types of interactions (chapter 2), explore the concurrent evolution of dispersal and habitat niche width (specialization) in spatial heterogeneous landscape (chapter 3) and consider (potential) multidimensional evolutionary responses under climate change (chapter 4). Moreover, I investigate consequences of different dispersal probability and group tolerance on group formation respectively group composition and the coexistence of ‘marker types’ (chapter 5). For all studies, I utilize individual-based models of single or multiple species within spatially explicit (grid-based) landscapes. In chapter 5, I also use an analytical model in addition to an individual-based model to predict phenomenon in group recognition and group formation. ...