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The approach of using the combination of Ultraviolet (UPS) and Inverse Photoemission (IPS) to determine the transport levels in thin films of organic semiconductors is the scope of this work. For this matter all influences on the peak position and width in Photoelectron Spectroscopy are discussed with a special focus on organic semiconductors. Many of these influences are shown with experimental results of the investigation of diindenoperylene on Ag(111). These findings are applied to inorganic semiconductors silicon in order to establish the use of UPS and IPS on a well-understood system. Finally, the method is used to determine the transport level of several organic semiconductors (PTCDA, Alq3, CuPc, DIP, PBI-H4) and the corresponding exciton binding energies are calculated by comparison to optical absorption data.
Das Mischkristallsystem PbZrxTi1-xO3 (PZT) gehört durch seine ausgeprägten piezo- und ferroelektrischen Eigenschaften zu den meist verwendeten Funktionskeramiken. In Form von Dünnschichten auf flexiblen Metallsubstraten können sie für unterschiedlichste Anwendungen als Tastschalter, Vibrationsdämpfer, Mikroaktuator oder Ultraschallwandler eingesetzt werden. Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit ist es, den Gefügeaufbau und den Phasenbestand von PZT-Schichten, die in einem mehrstufigen Sol-Gel-Prozeß auf Blechen der säure- und temperaturbeständigen Chrom-Nickel-Legierung Hastelloy abgeschieden worden sind, zu analysieren und mit ihren ferroelektrischen und die-lektrischen Eigenschaften zu korrelieren. Es wird nachgewiesen, daß das Gefüge gezielt mittels verschiedener Temperaturbehandlungen und unter-schiedlicher Neodymdotierung variiert werden kann. Durch Nd-Dotierung wird das Maximum der Keimbil-dungsrate zu niedrigeren Temperaturen hin verschoben und die Wachstumsgeschwindigkeit gegenüber undotierten Schichten verringert. Die Kristallisation in dotierten und undotierten Schichten ist heterogen und erfolgt bevorzugt an den Grenz- und Oberflächen sowie an den Porenrändern im Innern der Schichten. Die Zusammensetzung der PZT-Sol-Gel-Beschichtungen liegt im Bereich der morphotropen Phasengrenze (x=0,53) zwischen tetragonaler und rhomboedrischer Phase. Erstmals wurde die während der Temperatur-behandlung auftretende Gradientenbildung im Zr/Ti-Verhältnis systematisch mit dem Gefüge und dem Phasenbestand auf Nanometerskala in Verbindung gesetzt. Hierbei konnte aufgezeigt werden, dass langreichweitige Zr:Ti-Fluktuationen vorrangig während der Kri-stallisation der Pyrochlorphase entstehen. Bei der nachfolgenden Perowskitkristallisation wachsen die Kri-stalle über die entmischten Bereiche hinweg, so daß Schwankungen im Zr:Ti-Verhältnis innerhalb der Kristallite erhalten bleiben. Es wird dargelegt, daß die Fluktuationen im Zr:Ti-Verhältnis infolge der starken Spannungen innerhalb der Schicht nur geringe Auswirkungen auf den Verzerrungsgrad der Kristallite und die Zugehörigkeit zur rhomboedrischen oder tetragonalen Perowskitphase haben. Beim Übergang in den ferroelektrischen Zustand ist das Ausmaß der Gitterverzerrung unabhängig von der Kristallitgröße und in Nd-dotierten Schichten generell geringer als in undotierten Schichten. Es wird die Ausbildung einer Zwischenschicht zwischen Metallsubstrat und PZT-Schicht untersucht, die die resultierenden elektrischen Eigenschaften maßgeblich beeinflußt. Sie wird als Oxidschicht identifiziert, be-stehend aus kristallinem NiO und NiCr2O4, verschiedenen Chromoxiden und Pb2(CrO4)O, die als nicht-ferroelektrisches Dielektrikum die resultierende Dielektrizitätskonstante des Substrat-Schichtverbundes stark herabsetzt. Durch Aufbringen einer unterstöchiometrischen La0,75Sr0,2MnO3 (ULSM) - Elektrodierung vor der PZT-Beschichtung gelingt es, die Kontaktierung zu verbessern, die (001)-Orientierung in undotierten Schichten zu steigern und sehr schmale P-E-Hysteresekurven zu erhalten.
The main focus of this work was to get a deeper understanding of the relationship between the structure of sol-gel films, their densification and their macroscopic cracking. First of all titania was chosen as model system. Therefore a synthesis route starting from the preparation of long-term stable amorphous redissoluble precursor powders based on acetylacetone as chelate ligand was utilized. The solubility and stability of the powders in various solvents can be determined by chemical synthesis and technological parameters. When dissolved in a solvent mixture of ethanol and 1,5-pentanediol, thin films can be easily prepared by dip-coating technique. Thereby the quality of the titania films enormously depends on the calcinations temperature and the solvent mixture is used. In order to investigate the influence of different solvents and solvent mixtures on the microstructure and densification of the precursors, the coating solutions were stripped off (sol powder) and analyzed as function of annealing temperature. It was pointed out that a high densification rate caused by the addition of 1,5-pentanediol, results in dense microstructure with trapped residual carbon. These impurities can retard the phase transformation of anatase to rutile. The analysis of so-called “film powders” scraped off multiple dip-coated substrates provides valuable information on the effect of air moisture and unidirectional densification during drying and aging on the structure of thin films. The high surface-to-volume ratio and access to air moisture determine the chemical composition of the as-prepared film, which controls shrinkage, crystallization and defect structure of the coatings. Further it was shown, that drying as a thin film results in the formation of closed pores and much denser microstructure than the respective sol powder. Without the addition of 1,5-pentanediol all –OEt moieties undergo hydrolysis reactions, which causes the formation of a rigid network. The presence of 1,5-pentanediol retards this hydrolysis reactions and provides some network plasticity. Generally the microstructure of thin films is comparatively close to the microstructure of the film powders. The addition of 1,5-pentandiol prevents hydrolysis and condensation reactions as like in the film powders. However even at 700 °C, thin films never transform to rutile, which was attributed to the tensile stresses in thin films. In thin films and in film powders as well a comparable amount of closed pores are formed during annealing. Further it was shown that most of the thin sol-gel films investigated form a dense crust on their tops during annealing. This explains why crack free films exhibit only closed pores. However, when cracks appear during thin film shrinkage in the coating, this crust is burst, which generates open porosity. The defect density in the coatings was determined by an automated analysis of surface images. The crack formation and quantity can be directly referred to tensile stresses in the coatings, which arise from hydrolysis and condensation during thin film drying and aging. Therefore when 1,5-pentanediol is added to the sol, thin film cracking was avoided, because hydrolysis and condensation reactions are retarded, which preserves a higher network flexibility. Furthermore the crack formation was significantly influenced by the atmospheric humidity that was used during the coating process, which was explained by different drying and condensation rates. Under certain chemical starting conditions water soluble precursor powders can be also obtained. In general the observations made with the water based coating solutions are mostly in agreement with the former results based on ethanol based coating solutions. For example the high surface-to-volume ratio of film powders compared to sol powders also significantly enhances film drying and densification. The addition of 1,5-pentanediol also clearly contributes to their densification behavior and phase evolution. As seen before in the case of ethanol based coatings, 1,5-pentanediol enhances the stability towards hydrolysis and condensation reactions and preserves some network plasticity. Therefore coatings prepared without the addition of 1,5-pentanediol already form cracks during film drying and aging because of tensile stresses. Thus, the addition of 1,5-pentanediol results in a reduction/prevention of crack formation. Nevertheless some differences were observed, i.e. the critical single coating film thickness of ethanol based coatings is nearly twice that of water based coatings. This was explained by the different surface tensions of the basis solvents, which during thin film drying causes significantly higher capillary forces and tensile stresses in water based coatings. When acetylacetone is replaced by triethanolamine as chelating ligand for titanium also re-dissolvable precursor powders can be synthesized. The film powders combine a high hydrolytic stability of the precursor with sufficient intermediate network flexibility. The different type of organics changes the drying and densification behavior: i.e. in contrast to film powders obtained from acetylacetone based precursor powders the structure of triethanolamine based film powders is unaffected by the thin film drying process. This high hydrolytic stability and plasticity of this precursor allows the preparation of defect free coatings up to single film thickness of 300 nm. However triethanolamine based thin films present at intermediary annealing temperatures a distinctively different microstructure compared to acetylacetone based films. The general validity of the conclusions was proved on the basis of zirconia coatings that were also prepared by the use of re-dissolvable precursor powders. In principle all conclusions concerning the interconnection of precursor chemistry, film formation, densification and structure were transferable to the respective zirconia coatings. Differences mainly arise only from differential material properties i.e. bulk density. Finally, it has been pointed out that the findings obtained on the densification behavior of thinsol-gel films are also a valuable tool for improved explanations of other important scientific questions concerning sol-gel films, i.e. scratch resistance of sol-gel coatings, fiber -bridging and – degradation of sol-gel coated fibers.
This work is investigating the electronic structure of organic thin films. A central question in this respect is the influence of the interaction between the molecules in the condensed phase and the interaction at metal-organic interfaces on the electronic properties. For this purpose the experimental methods Photoelectron Spectroscopy (PES) and Near Edge X-ray Absorption Finestructure Spectroscopy (NEXAFS) were applied with highest energy resolution. In addition, ab initio calculations were performed for the theoretical simulation of NEXFAS spectra. The investigation is mainly focussing on thin, vacuum sublimated films of aromatic model molecules with oxygen-containing functional groups (NTCDA, PTCDA, NDCA, BPDCA and ANQ) and Ag(111) surfaces. Due to their large, delocalised p-systems these molecules have very interesting properties for their application in electronic devices. Due to the high energy resolution of third generation synchrotron sources the vibronic fine structure in the NEXAFS spectra of these large molecules could be resolved for the first time in the condensed phase. A comparison of the data of the different molecules provides interesting insight into the coupling between electronic transition and vibronic excitation. Although for these molecules a variety of different vibronic modes exist, the NEXAFS data show that preferentially only on mode couples to each electronic transition. The high-resolution PES spectra of the molecules NTCDA, PTCDA, NDCA, BPDCA and ANQ show distinct differences thus providing a fingerprint for each investigated substance. A comparative analysis of the spectra enabled us to define the 1s binding energies of all chemically different carbon and oxygen atoms. Additional structures in the spectra can be assigned as shake-up satellites. The five molecules are an ideal model system for the investigation of fundamental aspects of core electron spectroscopy, such as initial and final state effects and satellites, that are influenced by the intra- and intermolecular electron distribution in the ground and core ionized state. An important aspect in this thesis is the spectroscopic investigation of structurally different NTCDA monolayer phases on the Ag(111) surface. Marked differences in the electronic structures of the different phases, that can be assigned to differences in the metal-adsorbate interaction, could be demonstrated by XPS and NEXAFS. The substrate bonding can be characterized as chemisorptive for both, the compressed as well as the relaxed NTCDA monolayer, which can be unambiguously deduced from the analysis of satellite structures in the O 1s and C 1s XPS spectra. These satellites are due to dynamic screening by charge transfer from the substrate. The NEXAFS data show consistently, that the NTCDA LUMO becomes partly occupied upon adsorption. Highly interesting phase transitions into disordered low-temperature phases occur upon cooling to 160 K for both, the compressed and the relaxed NTCDA monolayer. Thereby, the adsorbate-substrate bonding is increased and the NTCDA LUMO becomes completely occupied. This can be observed in the NEXAFS data, where transitions involving LUMO final states are quenched. Simultaneously, the XPS data show a distinctly decreased intensity of unscreened photoemission states due to enhanced charge transfer screening. In addition, a hysteresis behaviour could be demonstrated for the phase transition of the relaxed monolayer by temperature dependent NEXAFS experiments and the hysteresis curve was determined. The hysteresis could be quantified to approx. 20 K. From SPA-LEED experiments the activating energy for the phase transition of the relaxed monolayer upon cooling could be determined to 60 meV. Finally, a NEXAFS investigation of polyethylene samples with different comonomer content is presented. Differences in the absorption spectra between samples with different comonomer content could be unambiguously assigned to the different crystallinities of the samples by heating a highly crystalline sample in situ close to the melting temperature. Ab initio calculations on a model matrix of butane molecules show, that the spectra of crystalline and amorphous polyethylene differ distinctly due to the intermolecular interaction, which can be observed best for resonances with strong Rydberg character. Thus, the differences in the PE spectra can be explained by the superposition of the signatures of crystalline and amorphous moieties, that are mixed according to the respective crystallinity.
Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurde eine neuartige Methode entwickelt, mit der es möglich ist, Magnetisierungsverläufe ausgewählter Schichten und Grenzflächen in dünnen Schichtsystemen zu bestimmen. Diese Resonante Magnetische Röntgenreflektometrie (XRMR: X-ray Resonant Magnetic Reflectometry) kombiniert die Methode der konventionellen Röntgenreflektometrie mit resonanten magnetischen Effekten, die an Absorptionskanten magnetischer Atome auftreten. Analog zur herkömmlichen Reflektometrie, die Aussagen über Schichtdicken und vertikale Grenzflächenrauhigkeiten zulässt, liefert die XRMR das tiefenabhängige magneto-optische Profil der untersuchten magnetischen Schicht. Durch die Aufnahme zweier Reflexionsspektren bei invertierter Helizität des einfallenden Röntgenstrahls oder Umkehr der Magnetisierungsrichtung der Probe in der Nähe der Absorptionskante eines magnetischen Elements erhält man als Messsignal das Asymmetrieverhältnis, das die Information über das tiefenabhängige Magnetisierungsprofil der untersuchten Schicht enthält. Zur Anpassung an die gemessene Asymmetrie über ein optisches Näherungsverfahren ist die Modellierung der optischen Konstanten der magnetischen Schicht oder Grenzfläche notwendig, die hierzu in viele dünne Einzelschichten künstlich aufgeteilt wird. Wichtig hierbei ist die korrekte Bestimmung der dispersiven und absorptiven Ladungsanteilen des komplexen Brechungsindex durch vorherige Messung des Absorptionskoeffizienten und der Berechnung der Dispersion über die Kramers-Kronig-Relation. XRMR-Experimente wurden an Pt/Co-Schichtsystemen an den Synchrotronstrahlungsquellen HASYLAB/Hamburg und BESSYII/Berlin durchgeführt, um die Anwendbarkeit der Messmethodik im harten und weichen Röntgenbereich zu demonstrieren. Durch die intrinsische Elementselektivität resonanter Streuung und die Verstärkung magnetischer Effekte durch Interferenzerscheinungen ist es möglich, Informationen über sehr kleine induzierte magnetische Momente an der Grenzfläche zu einer ferromagnetischen Schicht zu erhalten. Dies konnte bei der Untersuchung einer einzelnen Pt/Co-Bilage gezeigt werden, bei der das Magnetisierungsprofil der Pt-Schicht an der Pt/Co-Grenzfläche bestimmt wurde. Im Weiteren konnte durch XRMR-Messungen an einer Serie von einzelnen Pt/Co-Grenzübergängen das Zusammenspiel von chemischer Grenzflächenrauhigkeit und induziertem Pt-Magnetisierungsprofil untersucht werden. Wichtig war es, die Einsetzbarkeit der Methode im weichen Röntgenbereich zu zeigen, in dem die L2,3 Kanten der 3d-Übergangsmetalle liegen, die für den Magnetismus eine herausragende Rolle spielen. Hierbei konnte durch Messung an der Co-L3 Kante das Magnetisierungsprofil einer einzelnen Co-Schicht in einer Pt/Co/Cu-Trilage extrahiert werden. Des Weiteren erlaubt die Methode die Aufnahme elementspezifischer Hysteresekurven vergrabener dünner Schichten in Schichtsystemen mit hoher Qualität. Das Verfahren ist daher prädestiniert zur quantitativen Untersuchung von modernen neuen magnetoelektronischen Komponenten wie GMR- und TMR-Sensoren, MRAM’s oder Halbleiterstrukturen der viel versprechenden „Spintronic“. Es können bei derartigen Systemen Grenzflächenphänomene vergrabener Schichten zerstörungsfrei untersucht werden und im Weiteren auch Themen, die eher der Grundlagenforschung zuzuordnen sind, wie induzierter Grenzflächenmagnetismus oder auch oszillatorische Austauschkopplung in Zukunft quantitativ und elementselektiv behandelt werden.