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It has been proposed that different features of a face provide a source of information for separate perceptual and cognitive processes. Properties of a face that remain rather stable over time, so called invariant facial features, yield information about a face’s identity, and changeable aspects of faces transmit information underlying social communication such as emotional expressions and speech movements. While processing of these different face properties was initially claimed to be independent, a growing body of evidence suggests that these sources of information can interact when people recognize faces with whom they are familiar. This is the case because the way a face moves can contain patterns that are characteristic for that specific person, so called idiosyncratic movements. As a face becomes familiar these idiosyncratic movements are learned and hence also provide information serving face identification. While an abundance of experiments has addressed the independence of invariant and variable facial features in face recognition, little is known about the exact nature of the impact idiosyncratic facial movements have on face recognition. Gaining knowledge about the way facial motion contributes to face recognition is, however, important for a deeper understanding of the way the brain processes and recognizes faces. In the following dissertation three experiments are reported that investigate the impact familiarity of changeable facial features has on processes of face recognition. Temporal aspects of the processing of familiar idiosyncratic facial motion were addressed in the first experiment via EEG by investigating the influence familiar facial movement exerts on event-related potentials associated to face processing and face recognition. After being familiarized with a face and its idiosyncratic movement, participants viewed familiar or unfamiliar faces with familiar or unfamiliar facial movement while their brain potentials were recorded. Results showed that familiarity of facial motion influenced later event-related potentials linked to memory processes involved in face recognition. The second experiment used fMRI to investigate the brain areas involved in processing familiar facial movement. Participants’ BOLD-signal was registered while they viewed familiar and unfamiliar faces with familiar or unfamiliar idiosyncratic movement. It was found that activity of brain regions, such as the fusiform gyrus, that underlie the processing of face identity, was modulated by familiar facial movement. Together these two experiments provide valuable information about the nature of the involvement of idiosyncratic facial movement in face recognition and have important implications for cognitive and neural models of face perception and recognition. The third experiment addressed the question whether idiosyncratic facial movement could increase individuation in perceiving faces from a different ethnic group and hence reduce impaired recognition of these other-race faces compared to own-race faces, a phenomenon named the own-race bias. European participants viewed European and African faces that were each animated with an idiosyncratic smile while their attention was either directed to the form or the motion of the face. Subsequently recognition memory for these faces was tested. Results showed that the own-race bias was equally present in both attention conditions indicating that idiosyncratic facial movement was not able to reduce or diminish the own-race bias. In combination the here presented experiments provide further insight into the involvement of idiosyncratic facial motion in face recognition. It is necessary to consider the dynamic component of faces when investigating face recognition because static facial images are not able to provide the full range of information that leads to recognition of a face. In order to reflect the full process of face recognition, cognitive and neural models of face perception and recognition need to integrate dynamic facial features as a source of information which contributes to the recognition of a face.
Our object recognition abilities, a direct product of our experience with objects, are fine-tuned to perfection. Left temporal and lateral areas along the dorsal, action related stream, as well as left infero-temporal areas along the ventral, object related stream are engaged in object recognition. Here we show that expertise modulates the activity of dorsal areas in the recognition of man-made objects with clearly specified functions. Expert chess players were faster than chess novices in identifying chess objects and their functional relations. Experts’ advantage was domain-specific as there were no differences between groups in a control task featuring geometrical shapes. The pattern of eye movements supported the notion that experts’ extensive knowledge about domain objects and their functions enabled superior recognition even when experts were not directly fixating the objects of interest. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) related exclusively the areas along the dorsal stream to chess specific object recognition. Besides the commonly involved left temporal and parietal lateral brain areas, we found that only in experts homologous areas on the right hemisphere were also engaged in chess specific object recognition. Based on these results, we discuss whether skilled object recognition does not only involve a more efficient version of the processes found in non-skilled recognition, but also qualitatively different cognitive processes which engage additional brain areas
Background:
This study investigated the relation between social desirability and self-reported physical activity in web-based research.
Findings:
A longitudinal study (N = 5,495, 54% women) was conducted on a representative sample of the Dutch population using the Marlowe-Crowne Scale as social desirability measure and the short form of the International Physical Activity Questionnaire. Social desirability was not associated with self-reported physical activity (in MET-minutes/week), nor with its sub-behaviors (i.e., walking, moderate-intensity activity, vigorous-intensity activity, and sedentary behavior). Socio-demographics (i.e., age, sex, income, and education) did not moderate the effect of social desirability on self-reported physical activity and its sub-behaviors.
Conclusions:
This study does not throw doubt on the usefulness of the Internet as a medium to collect self-reports on physical activity.
Hintergrund: Die Panikstörung ist eine die Lebensqualität beeinträchtigende psychische Störung, die unbehandelt einen chronischen Verlauf zeigt, jedoch sowohl durch Psychotherapie als auch Psychopharmakotherapie erfolgreich behandelt werden kann. Die der Panikstörung zugrundeliegenden neuronalen Schaltkreise werden in der von Gorman et al. (1989, 2000) veröffentlichten neuroanatomischen Hypothese beschrieben. In der stark an der Tierforschung angelehnten revidierten Version (2000) wird die Amygdala als Zentrum eines komplexen Furchtnetzwerks angesehen, deren Aktivität durch höhere kortikale Areale im präfrontalen Kortex moduliert wird. Trotz der Popularität der Hypothese sind deren Annahmen bislang kaum explizit überprüft worden. Ziel: Ziel der Untersuchung war es, die neuronale Verarbeitung emotionaler Reize in empirischen Experimenten genauer zu untersuchen, da die Datenlage in diesem Bereich noch gering und inkonsistent ist und Replikationsstudien fehlen. Außerdem sollte ein Überblick über die bereits veröffentlichten empirischen Studien gegeben werden, welche mit bildgebenden Verfahren Aussagen über die Beteiligung bestimmter neuronaler Strukturen bei der Panikstörung erlauben. Methoden: An den Standorten Würzburg und Hamburg wurden Patienten mit Panikstörung (n = 18/20) und gesunde Kontrollen (n = 27/23) mit zwei Paradigmen zur Verarbeitung emotionaler Reize (emotionaler Stroop-Test und Gesichterverarbeitung) mit der funktionellen Magnetresonanztomographie untersucht. Hierbei sollten insbesondere die in der neuroanatomischen Hypothese wichtigen Strukturen Amygdala und präfrontaler Kortex betrachtet werden. Bildgebende Studien, die Patienten mit Panikstörung untersuchten, wurden über eine Literaturrecherche ermittelt, in Untergruppen von Studien eingeteilt und bewertet. Ergebnisse: In beiden untersuchten Stichproben zeigten die Patienten im Vergleich zu den Kontrollen auf Reaktionszeitebene einen signifikanten emotionalen Stroop-Effekt mit verlängerten Antwortlatenzen für panikrelevante Wörter. In den funktionellen Daten zeigten sich keine Unterschiede in der Amygdalaaktivierung, jedoch zeigten die Patienten für den Kontrast ‚panikrelevante vs. neutrale Wörter‘ im Gruppenvergleich eine erhöhte Aktivierung in präfrontalen Arealen. Bei der Verarbeitung emotionaler Gesichter gab es kaum Unterschiede zwischen den Gruppen, ängstliche Gesichter lösten im Vergleich zu neutralen Gesichtern keine erhöhte Amygdalaaktivierung aus. Hinweise auf eine generelle Hypofrontalität ließen sich bei den Patienten – zumindest bei der Verarbeitung emotionaler Reize – in den angewandten Paradigmen nicht finden. Schlussfolgerung: Die Ergebnisse der experimentellen Untersuchung und des Literaturüberblicks zeigen, dass – trotz durchaus mit der neuroanatomischen Hypothese in Einklang stehender Befunde – Inkonsistenzen zu finden sind, die mit der aktuellen Hypothese nicht erklärt werden können. Die Ergebnisse der vorliegenden Untersuchung im emotionalen Stroop-Test konnten bisher gefundene präfrontale Aktivierungsmuster replizieren, für die Amygdala gilt das nicht. Eine Erweiterung der Hypothese durch die Berücksichtigung neuer Aspekte könnte helfen, diese Befunde besser zu erklären und zu einem umfassenderen Bild der neuronalen Grundlagen der Störung beitragen. Modifikationen werden vorgeschlagen, die der Weiterentwicklung der Hypothese dienen könnten und bei der Planung zukünftiger Studien berücksichtigt werden sollten. Die vermutete prominente Rolle der Amygdala bei der Panikstörung ist nach wie vor nicht hinreichend untersucht und der modulierende Einfluss präfrontaler Strukturen sollte zukünftig insbesondere im direkten Zusammenspiel mit der Amygdala, z. B. im Rahmen psychotherapeutischer Interventionen, genauer analysiert werden.
The limbic system and especially the amygdala have been identified as key structures in emotion induction and regulation. Recently research has additionally focused on the influence of prefrontal areas on emotion processing in the limbic system and the amygdala. Results from fMRI studies indicate that the prefrontal cortex (PFC) is involved not only in emotion induction but also in emotion regulation. However, studies using fNIRS only report prefrontal brain activation during emotion induction. So far it lacks the attempt to compare emotion induction and emotion regulation with regard to prefrontal activation measured with fNIRS, to exclude the possibility that the reported prefrontal brain activation in fNIRS studies are mainly caused by automatic emotion regulation processes. Therefore this work tried to distinguish emotion induction from regulation via fNIRS of the prefrontal cortex. 20 healthy women viewed neutral pictures as a baseline condition, fearful pictures as induction condition and reappraised fearful pictures as regulation condition in randomized order. As predicted, the view-fearful condition led to higher arousal ratings than the view-neutral condition with the reappraise-fearful condition in between. For the fNIRS results the induction condition showed an activation of the bilateral PFC compared to the baseline condition (viewing neutral). The regulation condition showed an activation only of the left PFC compared to the baseline condition, although the direct comparison between induction and regulation condition revealed no significant difference in brain activation. Therefore our study underscores the results of previous fNIRS studies showing prefrontal brain activation during emotion induction and rejects the hypothesis that this prefrontal brain activation might only be a result of automatic emotion regulation processes.
The present study investigated event-related brain potentials elicited by true and false negated statements to evaluate if discrimination of the truth value of negated information relies on conscious processing and requires higher-order cognitive processing in healthy subjects across different levels of stimulus complexity. The stimulus material consisted of true and false negated sentences (sentence level) and prime-target expressions (word level). Stimuli were presented acoustically and no overt behavioral response of the participants was required. Event-related brain potentials to target words preceded by true and false negated expressions were analyzed both within group and at the single subject level. Across the different processing conditions (word pairs and sentences), target words elicited a frontal negativity and a late positivity in the time window from 600–1000 msec post target word onset. Amplitudes of both brain potentials varied as a function of the truth value of the negated expressions. Results were confirmed at the single-subject level. In sum, our results support recent suggestions according to which evaluation of the truth value of a negated expression is a time- and cognitively demanding process that cannot be solved automatically, and thus requires conscious processing. Our paradigm provides insight into higher-order processing related to language comprehension and reasoning in healthy subjects. Future studies are needed to evaluate if our paradigm also proves sensitive for the detection of consciousness in non-responsive patients.
The present study investigated event-related brain potentials elicited by true and false negated statements to evaluate if discrimination of the truth value of negated information relies on conscious processing and requires higher-order cognitive processing in healthy subjects across different levels of stimulus complexity. The stimulus material consisted of true and false negated sentences (sentence level) and prime-target expressions (word level). Stimuli were presented acoustically and no overt behavioral response of the participants was required. Event-related brain potentials to target words preceded by true and false negated expressions were analyzed both within group and at the single subject level. Across the different processing conditions (word pairs and sentences), target words elicited a frontal negativity and a late positivity in the time window from 600-1000 msec post target word onset. Amplitudes of both brain potentials varied as a function of the truth value of the negated expressions. Results were confirmed at the single-subject level. In sum, our results support recent suggestions according to which evaluation of the truth value of a negated expression is a time-and cognitively demanding process that cannot be solved automatically, and thus requires conscious processing. Our paradigm provides insight into higher-order processing related to language comprehension and reasoning in healthy subjects. Future studies are needed to evaluate if our paradigm also proves sensitive for the detection of consciousness in non-responsive patients.
The limbic system and especially the amygdala have been identified as key structures in emotion induction and regulation. Recently research has additionally focused on the influence of prefrontal areas on emotion processing in the limbic system and the amygdala. Results from fMRI studies indicate that the prefrontal cortex (PFC) is involved not only in emotion induction but also in emotion regulation. However, studies using fNIRS only report prefrontal brain activation during emotion induction. So far it lacks the attempt to compare emotion induction and emotion regulation with regard to prefrontal activation measured with fNIRS, to exclude the possibility that the reported prefrontal brain activation in fNIRS studies are mainly caused by automatic emotion regulation processes. Therefore this work tried to distinguish emotion induction from regulation via fNIRS of the prefrontal cortex. 20 healthy women viewed neutral pictures as a baseline condition, fearful pictures as induction condition and reappraised fearful pictures as regulation condition in randomized order. As predicted, the view-fearful condition led to higher arousal ratings than the view-neutral condition with the reappraise-fearful condition in between. For the fNIRS results the induction condition showed an activation of the bilateral PFC compared to the baseline condition (viewing neutral). The regulation condition showed an activation only of the left PFC compared to the baseline condition, although the direct comparison between induction and regulation condition revealed no significant difference in brain activation. Therefore our study underscores the results of previous fNIRS studies showing prefrontal brain activation during emotion induction and rejects the hypothesis that this prefrontal brain activation might only be a result of automatic emotion regulation processes.
Die Arbeit gliedert sich in drei Schwerpunkte. Zunächst wird Zeitmanagement aus psychologischer Perspektive genauer betrachtet. Während Zeitmanagement bislang, auch in der Forschung, vor allem vor dem Hintergrund populärer Ratgeberliteratur beschrieben wurde (z.B. Macan, Shahani, Dipboye & Phillips, 1990, S. 761ff; Orpen, 1994, S. 394) ist es ein besonderes Anliegen im Rahmen dieser Arbeit gutes Zeitmanagement aus psychologischer Perspektive zu diskutieren: Was kann vor dem Hintergrund psychologischer Theorien und Forschungsbefunde unter gutem Zeitmanagement verstanden werden? Welche konkreten Verhaltensweisen zeichnen gutes Zeitmanagement aus? Verschiedene Zeitmanagementtechniken werden hierzu möglichst verhaltensnah expliziert. Das so beschriebene Zeitmanagementverhalten diente als Grundlage für die korrelativen Studien sowie die Interventionsstudien zur Evaluation von Zeitmanagementtrainings. Koch und Kleinmann (2002, S. 212) verwiesen auf das Problem der unklaren theoretischen Fundierung von Zeitmanagementtrainings und sahen darin eine Ursache für die uneinheitliche Befundlage zur Wirksamkeit solcher Trainings. Für den zweiten Teil der Arbeit wurde in drei korrelativen Studien untersucht, ob die Nutzung von Zeitmanagementtechniken mit Befinden und Leistung dergestalt assoziiert ist, dass sich Leistung und Befinden mit zunehmender Nutzungshäufigkeit von Zeitmanagementtechniken verbessern. Zu diesem Zweck wurden korrelative Studien mit Auszubildenden, Sachbearbeitern und Führungskräften durchgeführt. Ein besonderes Anliegen ist in diesem Kontext auch die Diskussion von gefundenen Unterschieden bezüglich der Zusammenhänge zwischen Zeitmanagementverhalten, Leistung und Befinden zwischen den drei Zielgruppen. Im dritten Teil werden die Ergebnisse dreier Evaluationsstudien berichtet, in denen die Wirkung von Zeitmanagementtrainings auf Leistung und Befinden untersucht wurde. Im Mittelpunkt steht dabei eine Interventionsstudie mit Sachbearbeitern (kaufmännischen Angestellten), die um zwei weitere Interventionsstudien mit Studierenden ergänzt wurde. Als wichtige Ergebnisse der Studien können festgehalten werden, dass (a) gutes Zeitmanagementverhalten insbesondere bei Führungskräften und Sachbearbeitern in Zusammenhang mit Befinden, weniger mit Leistung, steht, (b) Zeitmanagementtrainings geeignet sind, die erlebte Zeitkontrolle zu steigern und das Stresserleben zu reduzieren, (c), Zeitmanagementtrainings auch eine präventive Wirkung in Bezug auf das Stresserleben bei steigenden Anforderungen haben können, (d) einem wesentlichen Zeitmanagementproblem, dem Aufschieben der Bearbeitung von Aufgaben bis kurz vor eine deadline, durch ein Zeitmanagementtraining erfolgreich begegnet und (e) lediglich eine tendenzielle Wirkung eines Zeitmanagementtrainings auf Leistungsvariablen nachgewiesen werden konnte.
Humans have the tendency to react with congruent facial expressions when looking at an emotional face. Interestingly, recent studies revealed that several situational moderators can modulate strength and direction of these reactions. In current literature, congruent facial reactions to emotional facial expressions are usually described in terms of “facial mimicry” and interpreted as imitative behavior. Thereby, facial mimicry is understood as a process of pure motor resonance resulting from overlapping representations for the perception and the execution of a certain behavior. Motor mimicry, however, is not the only mechanism by which congruent facial reactions can occur. Numerous studies have shown that facial muscles also indicate valence evaluations. Furthermore, facial reactions are also determined by our current emotional state. These thoughts suggest that the modulation of congruent facial reactions to emotional expressions can be based on both motor and affective processes. However, a separation of motor and affective processes in facial reactions is hard to make. None of the published studies that tried that could show a clear involvement of one or the other process so far. Therefore, the aim of the present line of experiments is to shed light on the involvement of motor and affective processes in the modulation of congruent and incongruent facial reactions. Specifically, the experiments are designed to test the assumptions of a working model on mechanisms underlying the modulation of facial reactions and to examine the neuronal correlates involved in such modulations with a broad range of methods. Experiments 1 and 2 experimentally manipulate motor and affective mechanisms by using specific contexts. In the chose settings, motor process models and affective models of valence evaluations make competing predictions about resulting facial reactions. The results of Experiment 1 did not support the involvement of valence evaluations in the modulation of congruent and incongruent facial reactions to facial expressions. The results of Experiments 2a and 2b suggest that emotional reactions are the predominant determinant of facial reactions. Experiment 3 aimed at identifying the psychological mediators that indicate motor and affective mechanisms. Motor mechanisms are assessed via the psychological mediator empathy. Additionally, as a psychological mediator for clarifying the role of affective mechanisms subjective measures of the participants’ current emotional state in response to the presented facial expressions were taken. Mediational analyses show that the modulation of congruent facial reactions can be explained by a decrease of state cognitive empathy. This suggests that motor processes mediate the effects of the context on congruent facial reactions. However, such a mechanism could not be observed for incongruent reactions. Instead, it was found that affective processes in terms of emotional reactions are involved in incongruent facial reactions. Additionally, the involvement of a third class of processes, namely strategic processes, was observed. Experiment 4 aimed at investigating whether a change in the strength of perception can explain the contextual modulation of facial reactions to facial expressions. According to motor process models the strength of perception is directly related to the strength of the spread of activation from perception to the execution of an action and thereby to the strength of the resulting mimicry behavior. The results suggest that motor mechanisms were involved in the modulation of congruent facial reactions by attitudes. Such an involvement of motor mechanisms could, however, not be observed for the modulation of incongruent reactions. In Experiment 5 the investigation of neuronal correlates shall be extended to the observation of involved brain areas via fMRI. The proposed brain areas depicting motor areas were prominent parts of the mirror neuron system. The regions of interest depicting areas involved in the affective processing were amygdala, insula, striatum. Furthermore, it could be shown that changes in the activity of parts of the MNS are related to the modulation of congruent facial reactions. Further on, results revealed the involvement of affective processes in the modulation of incongruent facial reactions. In sum, these results lead to a revised working model on the mechanisms underlying the modulation of facial reactions to emotional facial expressions. The results of the five experiments provide strong support for the involvement of motor mechanisms in congruent facial reactions. No evidence was found for the involvement of motor mechanisms in the occurrence or modulation of incongruent facial reactions. Furthermore, no evidence was found for the involvement of valence evaluations in the modulation of facial reactions. Instead, emotional reactions were found to be involved in the modulation of mainly incongruent facial reactions.