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Adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) is a rare tumor and prognosis is overall poor but heterogeneous. Mitotane (MT) has been used for treatment of ACC for decades, either alone or in combination with cytotoxic chemotherapy. Even at doses up to 6 g per day, more than half of the patients do not achieve targeted plasma concentration (14–20 mg L\(^{-1}\)) even after many months of treatment due to low water solubility, bioavailability, and unfavorable pharmacokinetic profile. Here a novel MT nanoformulation with very high MT concentrations in physiological aqueous media is reported. The MT‐loaded nanoformulations are characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, differential scanning calorimetry, and powder X‐ray diffraction which confirms the amorphous nature of the drug. The polymer itself does not show any cytotoxicity in adrenal and liver cell lines. By using the ACC model cell line NCI‐H295 both in monolayers and tumor cell spheroids, micellar MT is demonstrated to exhibit comparable efficacy to its ethanol solution. It is postulated that this formulation will be suitable for i.v. application and rapid attainment of therapeutic plasma concentrations. In conclusion, the micellar formulation is considered a promising tool to alleviate major drawbacks of current MT treatment while retaining bioactivity toward ACC in vitro.
Adjuvant platinum-based chemotherapy in radically resected adrenocortical carcinoma: a cohort study
(2021)
Background
After radical resection, patients with adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) frequently experience recurrence and, therefore, effective adjuvant treatment is urgently needed. The aim of the study was to investigate the role of adjuvant platinum-based therapy.
Methods
In this retrospective multicentre cohort study, we identified patients treated with adjuvant platinum-based chemotherapy after radical resection and compared them with patients without adjuvant chemotherapy. Recurrence-free and overall survival (RFS/OS) were investigated in a matched group analysis and by applying a propensity score matching using the full control cohort (n = 268). For both approaches, we accounted for immortal time bias.
Results
Of the 31 patients in the platinum cohort (R0 n = 25, RX n = 4, R1 n = 2; ENSAT Stage II n = 11, III n = 16, IV n = 4, median Ki67 30%, mitotane n = 28), 14 experienced recurrence compared to 29 of 31 matched controls (median RFS after the landmark at 3 months 17.3 vs. 7.3 months; adjusted HR 0.19 (95% CI 0.09-0.42; P < 0.001). Using propensity score matching, the HR for RFS was 0.45 (0.29-0.89, P = 0.021) and for OS 0.25 (0.09-0.69; P = 0.007).
Conclusions
Our study provides the first evidence that adjuvant platinum-based chemotherapy may be associated with prolonged recurrence-free and overall survival in patients with ACC and a very high risk for recurrence.
The SF-1 transcription factor target gene FATE1 encodes a cancer-testis antigen that has an important role in regulating apoptosis and response to chemotherapy in adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) cells. Autoantibodies directed against FATE1 were previously detected in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma. In this study, we investigated the prevalence of circulating anti-FATE1 antibodies in pediatric and adult patients with adrenocortical tumors using three different methods (immunofluorescence, ELISA and Western blot). Our results show that a pervasive anti-FATE1 immune response is present in those patients. Furthermore, FATE1 expression is a robust prognostic indicator in adult patients with ACC and is associated with increased steroidogenic and decreased immune response gene expression. These data can open perspectives for novel strategies in ACC immunotherapy.
A growing body of literature reports on the upregulation of C-X-C motif chemokine receptor 4 (CXCR4) in a variety of cancer entities, rendering this receptor as suitable target for molecular imaging and endoradiotherapy in a theranostic setting. For instance, the CXCR4-targeting positron emission tomography (PET) agent [\(^{68}\)Ga]PentixaFor has been proven useful for a comprehensive assessment of the current status quo of solid tumors, including adrenocortical carcinoma or small-cell lung cancer. In addition, [\(^{68}\)Ga]PentixaFor has also provided an excellent readout for hematological malignancies, such as multiple myeloma, marginal zone lymphoma, or mantle cell lymphoma. PET-based quantification of the CXCR4 capacities in vivo allows for selecting candidates that would be suitable for treatment using the theranostic equivalent [\(^{177}\)Lu]/[\(^{90}\)Y]PentixaTher. This CXCR4-directed theranostic concept has been used as a conditioning regimen prior to hematopoietic stem cell transplantation and to achieve sufficient anti-lymphoma/-tumor activity in particular for malignant tissues that are highly sensitive to radiation, such as the hematological system. Increasing the safety margin, pretherapeutic dosimetry is routinely performed to determine the optimal activity to enhance therapeutic efficacy and to reduce off-target adverse events. The present review will provide an overview of current applications for CXCR4-directed molecular imaging and will introduce the CXCR4-targeted theranostic concept for advanced hematological malignancies.
We have previously identified serum miR-483-5p as a preoperative diagnosis and prognosis biomarker for adrenocortical cancer (ACC). Here, we aimed to determine whether circulating miR-483-5p levels measured 3 months post-operatively distinguished patients with good prognosis (no recurrence for at least 3 years; NR3yrs) from patients with poor prognosis (recurrence or death within 3 years after surgery; R < 3yrs). We conducted a single-center retrospective analysis using sera from 48 patients with ACC that were initially non-metastatic and treated by surgery. Sera sampled within 3 months after surgery were available in 26 patients. MiR-483-5p absolute circulating levels were measured using quantitative PCR. Thirteen patients showed a recurrence before 3 years (=R < 3yrs). Thirteen patients showed no recurrence within 3 years, including 11 patients with a follow-up longer than 3 years (=NR3yrs). Serum miR-483-5p levels were higher in R < 3yrs than in NR3yrs: 1,541,990 ± 428,377 copies/mL vs. 388,457 ± 62,169 copies/mL (p = 0.002). Receiver operating characteristic analysis showed that a value of 752,898 copies/mL distinguished R < 3yrs from NR3yrs with 61.5% sensitivity (CI 31.6–86.1) and 100% specificity (CI 71.5–100) with an area under the curve of 0.853. Patients with a value below this threshold had a significantly longer recurrence-free and overall survival. In multivariate analysis, miR-483-5p provided the single best prognostic value for recurrence-free survival (RFS) (hazard ratio (HR) for recurrence 5.98, p < 0.011) but not for overall survival. Our study suggests that serum miR-483-5p is a potent early post-operative biomarker for ACC prognosis that might be a better predictor of RFS than currently used markers.
Mitotane is the only approved drug for advanced adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) and no biomarkers are available to predict attainment of therapeutic plasma concentrations and clinical response. Aim of the study was to evaluate the suitability of cytochrome P450(CYP)2W1 and CYP2B6 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) as biomarkers. A multicenter cohort study including 182 ACC patients (F/M = 121/61) treated with mitotane monotherapy after radical resection (group A, n = 103) or in not completely resectable, recurrent or advanced disease (group B, n = 79) was performed. CYP2W1*2, CYP2W1*6, CYP2B6*6 and CYP2B6 rs4803419 were genotyped in germline DNA. Mitotane blood levels were measured regularly. Response to therapy was evaluated as time to progression (TTP) and disease control rate (DCR). Among investigated SNPs, CYP2W1*6 and CYP2B6*6 correlated with mitotane treatment only in group B. Patients with CYP2W1*6 (n = 21) achieved less frequently therapeutic mitotane levels (>14 mg/L) than those with wild type (WT) allele (76.2% vs 51.7%, p = 0.051) and experienced shorter TTP (HR = 2.10, p = 0.019) and lower DCR (chi-square = 6.948, p = 0.008). By contrast, 55% of patients with CYP2B6*6 vs. 28.2% WT (p = 0.016) achieved therapeutic range. Combined, a higher rate of patients with CYP2W1*6WT+CYP2B6*6 (60.6%) achieved mitotane therapeutic range (p = 0.034). In not completely resectable, recurrent or advanced ACC, CYP2W1*6 SNP was associated with a reduced probability to reach mitotane therapeutic range and lower response rates, whereas CYP2B6*6 correlated with higher mitotane levels. The association of these SNPs may predict individual response to mitotane.
Platinbasierte Chemotherapie ist die effektivste Chemotherapie für das fortgeschrittene Nebennierenrindenkarzinom (ACC). Excision repair cross complementing group 1 (ERCC1) spielt eine entscheidende Rolle bei der Reparatur durch Platin entstandener DNA-Schäden. Zwei Studien die die Rolle von ERCC1 per Immunhistochemie als prädiktiver Marker für das Ansprechen auf platinbasierte Chemotherapie beim ACC untersuchten kamen zu sich widersprechenden Ergebnissen. Beide Studien nutzten den ERCC1-Antikörper Klon 8F1 der sich später als nicht spezifisch herausstellte. Das Ziel der Doktorarbeit war die Evaluation von ERCC1 mit einem neuen hoch spezifischen Antikörper in einer großen Kohorte von Patienten mit ACC.
Material und Methoden: 146 Patienten mit verfügbaren FFPE-Schnitten wurden eingeschlossen. Alle Patienten erhielten eine platinbasierte Chemotherapie im Median für 6 Zyklen, nämlich Cisplatin (n=131) oder Carboplatin (n=15), in den meisten Fällen in Kombination mit Etoposid (n=144 , Doxorubicin (n=131) und Mitotane (n=131). Die Immunhistochemische Färbung wurde mit dem neuen Antikörper Klon 4F9 durchgeführt. Der Zusammenhang zwischen ERCC1-Expression und klinischen Parametern, Therapieansprechen, progressionsfreiem Überleben und Gesamtüberleben wurde analysiert.
Ergebnisse: Eine hohe ERCC1-Expression wurde in 66% der Tumorproben beobachtet. Während der Chemotherapie zeigte sich bei 43 Pateinten ein Therapieansprechen (29,5%), bei 49 Patienten eine Stabilisierung der Erkrankung (33,6%), bei 8 Patienten ein gemischtes Ansprechen (5,5%) und bei 46 Pateinten ein Krankheitsprogress (31,5%), ohne Zusammenhang zur ERCC1-Expression. Auch zeigte sich kein signifikanter Zusammenhanf zwischen der ERCC1-Expression und dem progressionsfreien Überleben (Median 6.5 vs. 6 Monate, P=0.33, HR=1.23, 95%CI=0.82-2.0) oder dem Gesamtüberleben.
Zusammenfassung: Es besteht kein Zusammenhang zwischen der ERCC1-Expression und der Platinsensitivität beim Nebennierenrindenkarzinom. Somit werden andere Biomarker zur Therapieentscheidung benötigt.
Die Bindung des Chemokinrezeptors CCR7 mit seinen Liganden CCL19 und CCL21 initiiert neben immunmodulatorischen auch antiapoptotische Effekte und beeinflusst die Geschwindigkeit der Zellmigration. Ein Zusammenhang zwischen CCR7-Expression und Lymphknotenmetastasierung sowie Gesamtüberleben ist für verschiedene Tumor-Entitäten dokumentiert. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wird erstmalig die CCR7-Expression in der Nebenniere, bei Nebennierenadenomen (ACA) und beim Nebennierenkarzinom (ACC) untersucht.
Methoden: Es wurden insgesamt 252 Nebennierengewebe (ACC n=128, ACC-Metastasen n=61, ACA n=59, normale Nebennieren n=4) mittels immunhistochemischer Färbung und 37 Gewebe (ACC n=9, ACA n=24, normale Nebennieren n=4) mittels quantitativer real-time PCR auf CCR7-Expression hin untersucht. Anschließend wurden die Beziehungen zwischen CCR7-Level (dargestellt durch einen semiquantitativen H-Score) und ACC-Metastasierung, dem Gesamt- und progressionsfreien Überleben der Patienten und verschiedenen klinischen bzw. histopathologischen Parametern wie ENSAT-Stadium, Hormonsekretion und Ki67-Index analysiert.
Ergebnisse: CCR7 konnte in allen untersuchten Nebennierengeweben in unterschiedlicher Intensität nachgewiesen werden. In der gesunden Nebenniere fand sich eine starke CCR7-Expression in den äußeren Rindenzonen und dem Nebennierenmark. In den ACA zeigten sich vor allem in endokrin-inaktiven Adenomen (EIA, H-Score 2.4) und cortisolproduzierenden Adenomen (CPA, H-Score 2.3) hohe CCR7-Werte. EIA wiesen damit signifikant höhere CCR7-Level verglichen mit ACC und aldosteronproduzierenden Adenomen (APA) auf, deren H-Score bei 1.8 bzw. 1.3 lagen. CPA hatten eine signifikante höhere CCR7-Expression als APA (p<0.005).
Bei den Nebennierenkarzinomen fand sich ein signifikanter Unterschied zwischen der CCR7-Membran-Expression von Lymphknotenmetastasen und den Primärtumoren (H-Score: 2.5 vs. 1.8; p<0.001), sowie zwischen Lymphknotenmetastasen und Lokalrezidiven (H-Score: 2.5 vs. 1.6; p<0.001) und Lymphknotenmetastasen und Lungenmetastasen (H-Score: 2.5 vs. 1.7; p=0.03). Hinweise für eine Korrelation zwischen CCR7-Expression und der Tumorgröße, der Hormonproduktion oder verschiedener Prognosefaktoren (ENSAT-Stadium, Weiss-Score, Ki67-Index) fanden sich nicht. Patienten mit Lymphknotenmetastasen bei Diagnose des ACC wiesen in ihren Primärtumoren signifikant höhere CCR7-Level auf als Patienten ohne Lymphknotenmetastasen (H-Score Mittelwert: 2.1 vs. 1.7; p=0.02). Die CCR7-Expression hatte in diesem Patientenkollektiv keinen signifikanten Einfluss auf das Gesamt- oder das progressionsfreie Überleben. In der Tendenz erlitten Patienten mit hoher CCR7-Expression einen früheren Tumorprogress.
Schlussfolgerung: CCR7 ist regelhaft in den unterschiedlichen Nebennierengeweben exprimiert. Entsprechend der Beobachtungen bei anderen Karzinomerkrankungen, war eine hohe CCR7-Expression mit tendenziell kürzerer progressionsfreier Zeit und einer frühen Lymphknotenmetastasierung assoziiert. Um zu klären, welche weitere Rolle CCR7 in der gesunden Nebenniere und den Nebennierentumoren spielt, sind weitere Untersuchungen notwendig.
Background: The chemokine receptor CCR7 is crucial for an intact immune function, but its expression is also associated with clinical outcome in several malignancies. No data exist on the expression of CCR7 in adrenocortical tumors. Methods: CCR7 expression was investigated by qRT-PCR and immunohistochemistry in 4 normal adrenal glands, 59 adrenocortical adenomas, and 181 adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) samples. Results: CCR7 is highly expressed in the outer adrenocortical zones and medulla. Aldosterone-producing adenomas showed lower CCR7 protein levels (H-score 1.3 ± 1.0) compared to non-functioning (2.4 ± 0.5) and cortisol-producing adenomas (2.3 ± 0.6), whereas protein expression was variable in ACC (1.8 ± 0.8). In ACC, CCR7 protein expression was significantly higher in lymph node metastases (2.5 ± 0.5) compared to primary tumors (1.8±0.8) or distant metastases (2.0 ± 0.4; p < 0.01). mRNA levels of CCR7 were not significantly different between ACCs, normal adrenals, and adrenocortical adenomas. In contrast to other tumor entities, neither CCR7 protein nor mRNA expression significantly impacted patients' survival. Conclusion: We show that CCR7 is expressed on mRNA and protein level across normal adrenals, benign adrenocortical tumors, as well as ACCs. Given that CCR7 did not influence survival in ACC, it is probably not involved in tumor progression, but it could play a role in adrenocortical homeostasis.
Identification of new drug targets in adrenocortical carcinoma through targeted mRNA analysis
(2021)
Adrenocortical carcinomas (ACC) are aggressive tumors associated with a heterogeneous but generally poor prognosis and limited treatment options for advanced stages. Despite promising molecular insights and improved understanding of ACC biology, efficient targeted therapies have not been identified yet. Thus, this study aims to identify potential new drug targets for a future personalized therapeutic approach.
RNA was isolated from 104 formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tumor samples from ACC patients, 40 of those 104 cases proved to be suitable for further mRNA analyses according to the quality check of the extracted RNA. Gene expression of 84 known cancer drug targets was evaluated by quantitative real-time PCR using 5 normal adrenal glands as reference. Protein expression was investigated for selected candidate drug targets by immunohistochemistry in 104 ACC samples, 11 adenomas and 6 normal adrenal glands. Efficacy of an available inhibitor of the most promising candidate was tested by functional in vitro experiments in two ACC cell lines (NCI-H295R and MUC1) alone or in combination with other drugs.
Most frequently overexpressed genes were TOP2A, IGF2, CDK1, CDK4, PLK4 and PLK1. Nuclear immunostaining of CDK1, CDK4 and PLK1 significantly correlated with the respective mRNA expression. CDK4 was chosen as the most promising candidate for functional validation as it is actionable by FDA-approved CDK4/6 inhibitors. ACC samples with copy number gains at CDK4 locus presented significantly higher CDK4 expression levels. The CDK4/6 inhibitor palbociclib showed a concentration- and time- dependent reduction of cell viability in vitro, which was more pronounced in NCI-H295R than in MUC1 cells. This was in line with higher CDK4 expression at western blot analysis in NCI-H295R cells. Furthermore, palbociclib was applied in combination with dual IGFR/IR inhibitor linsitinib showing a synergistic effect on reducing cell viability. In conclusion, this proof-of-principle study confirmed RNA profiling to be useful to discover potential drug targets. Detected drug targets are suitable to be investigated by immunohistochemistry in the clinical setting. Moreover, CDK4/6 inhibitors are promising candidates for treatment of a subset of patients with tumors presenting CDK4 copy number gains and/or overexpression, while linsitinib might be an interesting combination partner in patients with both IGF2 and IGF1R overexpression.
These results are intended as a basis for a validation study in a prospective cohort, further evaluation in vivo in suitable mouse models or testing in patients with ACC in clinical trials are needed and might improve the future management of patients with ACC in terms of precision medicine.