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Synthese einer Bibliothek von Aminosäure-basierten Oligopeptid-Amphiphilen mittels Festphasensynthese, deren kovalente Knüpfung an einen nukleophilen Kern zu C3-symmetrischen Sternmesogenen und die Analyse der Einflüsse der verwendeten Aminosäuren auf die Sekundärstruktur des synthetisierten Moleküls.
The charged aerosol detector (CAD) is an aerosol-based detector employed in liquid chromatography which has become established in the field of pharmaceutical analysis due to its outstanding performance characteristics, e.g. the almost uniform response for nonvolatile analytes. Owing to its principle of detection, the response of the CAD depends on the volatility of a compound and is inherently nonlinear. However, the newly implemented instrumental settings evaporation temperature and power function value (PFV) are valuable tools to overcome some of these drawbacks and can even enhance the detector’s capabilities when adjusted properly.
This thesis aimed to evaluate the impact of the new instrumental settings on the CAD performance. Additionally, the influence of modern separation techniques for small polar compounds on the CAD was assessed and the applicability of hyphenated UV-CAD techniques explored. The optimization strategies derived from the evaluation procedures and the conjunction of the instrumental and chromatographic techniques investigated were utilized for the challenging impurity profiling of amino acids and amino acid-like drugs.
The results of the method validation procedures confirmed the broad applicability of the CAD in the pharmaceutical analysis of nonvolatile compounds, supported by satisfactory sensitivity and reproducibility for meeting the regulatory requirements with respect to the ICH guidelines Q2(R1) and Q3A(R2). The limits of applicability include the analysis of semivolatile compounds, and the method transfer between current and legacy CAD models. Further advances in the definition and standardization of allowed ranges for the instrumental settings and the establishment of general optimization procedures in the method development could lead to a more widespread use of the detection technique in compendial methods.
The stability of Trp in pure solutions and in parenteral AA formulations was evaluated with regard to typically used manufacturing processes, storage conditions and primary packaging. Therefore, thorough stability studies on Trp solutions were conducted beforehand. The applied stressing method, i.e. steam sterilization by autoclave, are chemically seen relatively mild but showed to be efficient to induce Trp degradation in the presence of oxygen. Subsequent identification, separation and characterization were challenging due to similar substance properties, numerous stereoisomers and pairs of diastereomers found amongst them. However, the identified o-aminoacetophenone compounds, Kyn and NFK, are associated with photo reactivity and have photo-oxidizing properties. Thus, best possible protection from UV-light, together with strict oxygen expulsion, are the most important criteria to impede Trp degradation after autoclaving.
The identification of Trp degradation products was assisted by the compilation of a substance library, which included manifold reported and chemically plausible Trp degradation substances. The substances were classified for priority and their early or late-stage occurrence. The large number of possible substances and stereoisomers was narrowed down with the information retrieved from LC-UV/MS experiments. However, final identification was achieved by the synthesis of proposed substances as references. The following eight substances were characterized as Trp degradation substances: Kyn, NFK and three pairs of diastereomers R,R/R,S DiOia, R,R/R,S Oia and cis/trans PIC. Fig. 33 shows the proposed degradation pathway and demonstrates the close chemical relationship, which may be an explanation for the conversion of some substances into each other during the storage period. The proposed pathway brings together the results of different Trp stability and stressing studies, respectively [89, 94, 97, 98, 103, 133]. To our knowledge, the simultaneous formation of the identified degradation substances has not been reported before and especially not under the stressing conditions applied.
The application of a traditional RP-HPLC method was compared to two developed IP-HPLC methods and a RP-HPLC methods using a modified perfluorinated column. Orthogonal analyses methods and especially the combination of UV and MS detection are necessary in order to indicate potentially undetected degradation substances. Main evaluation criteria were the separation performance, analyses time, reproducibility and feasibility. The best results upon assessment of all Trp degradation products, in both; pure Trp solutions and pharmaceutical formulations, were obtained by a traditional RP-HPLC. The optimized method was validated according to ICH guidelines Q2(R1) and meets the criteria of a stability-indicating HPLC-UV method. The validated method has a sufficient separation performance with an adequate selectivity indicating the Trp degradation substances next to each other and next to other AAs in finished pharmaceutical formulations.
The detailed knowledge of Trp degradation and the method presented may be transferred practically to the pharmaceutical industry processing Trp-containing products. In general, the findings might contribute to the quality management of such pharmaceutical products during
manufacturing and storage. Additionally, the study results provide basic information for the establishment of an impurity consideration following the ICH guidelines Q3B (R2) (impurities in new drug products) for products containing Trp. However, further development of the method applying more sophisticated detectors or more potent HPLC techniques like e.g. UHPLC and the implication of more sensitive (MS) detectors like ToF-MS would be advantageous with regard to economic and practical aspects.
Neuste Studien haben ergeben, dass Asc-1 Knock-out Mäuse aufgrund einer verminderten intrazellulären Glycinkonzentration in synaptischen Boutons im Gehirn, einen Hyperekplexie-ähnlichen Phänotyp entwickeln. Aufgrund nicht vollständig geklärter Ursachen für die Entstehung des Krankheitsbildes der Hyperekplexie beim Menschen, wurde eine Kohorte von 51 Patienten zusammengetragen, um vor dem Hintergrund der Forschungsergebnisse zu Asc-1 im Tiermodell, das kodierende Gen beim Menschen SLC7A10 als mögliches Kandidatengen auf Sequenzalterationen zu untersuchen. Hierfür wurde aus Vollblut der an Hyperekplexie erkrankten Patienten genomische DNA isoliert, um mittels PCR und anschließendem Screening der Sequenzen, Mutationen innerhalb funktionell wichtiger Bereiche des Gens zu eruieren. Neben weiteren Sequenzunterschieden, die meist in Introns gefunden wurden, wurde die codierende Mutation G307R innerhalb von Exon 7 identifiziert, die letztendlich der Grund für eine Versuchsreihe war, um zu hinterfragen, ob dieser Aminosäureaustausch in der Proteinsequenz funktionelle Konsequenzen zur Folge hat. HEK293-Zellen wurden mit dem zuvor hergestellten Klon G307R transfiziert, um über Biotinylierung, immuncytochemische Färbungen und funktionelle Untersuchungen die Aktivität des Transporters zu beurteilen. Hier zeigte sich ein Funktionsverlust von über 95 %, bei uneingeschränkter Oberflächenexpression. ASC-1 bestätigt sich damit als neue Ursache in der Ausprägung von Hyperekplexie. Ferner können Zusammenhänge mit geistiger Retardierung und eingeschränkter neuronaler Plastizität bestehen.
The requirements for the impurity profiling of substances for pharmaceutical use have become greater over time. They can be accomplished by the use of modern instrumental analysis techniques, which have been evolved in the last decades. New types of columns with HILIC, mixed-mode and chiral stationary phases are suitable for the separation of all kinds of substances mixtures, that were previously hardly possible with the use of common reversed phase columns. Modern, almost universal detectors like CAD, ELSD and CNLSD can be applied for a sensitive detection of substances without a chromophore. However, in addition to some small individual disadvantages to these methods, the costs are high and applications are still kind of rare. Thus, the introduction of these devices at a broader level has not yet taken place. While this presumably will change over time, there is a need for methods that enable the impurity profiling of challenging substances with widespread analytics devices.
Methionine is a substance with hydrophobic and hydrophilic impurities. With the help of a mixed-mode stationary phase, which is a combination of a reversed phase and a strong cationic exchanger, the separation of all putative impurities was found possible with good sensitivity and selectivity. The method requires apart from the column only standard isocratic HPLC equipment and was successfully validated.
The evaluation of the enantiomeric purity of amino acids is challenging. Two approaches were made. The first method utilizes CE by means of in-capillary derivation with OPA and the subsequent separation with a cyclodextrin. With the use of OPA/NAC and γ-cyclodextrin, a simple and cost-effective method for the indirect enantioseparation of 16 amino acids was developed. With the second approach, racemic amino acids can be analyzed with HPLC and in-needle derivatization. For this, different columns and chiral thiols were evaluated and the chromatographic parameters were optimized. A method with OPA/NIBLC, a pentafluorophenyl column made the enantioseparation of 17 amino acids feasible. A LOQ of the minor enantiomer down to 0.04 % can be achieved with UV spectrophotometric detection. A similar method was developed for impurity profiling of L-amino acids. This can be used alternatively for the amino acid analysis performed by the European Pharmacopoeia.
A simple, robust, precise and accurate method for the evaluation of impurities in glyceryl trinitrate solution was developed and validated. The four impurities of glyceryl trinitrate are separated by means of an acetonitrile-water gradient and the assay for this substance is also possible.
The impurity profiling of pharmaceutical ingredients can oppose many challenges. The best part of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) and the related substances are detectable by UV detection, a very common detection principle. However, if an API lacks a suitable chromophore other means of detection are necessary. The corona charged aerosol detector (CAD) is a detector capable of detecting substances independent of their chemical structure. This “universal” detector has only one limitation: The analyte has to have a sufficiently low vapor pressure. Another important challenge that comes often together with the lack of a chromophore concerns the separation. These substances (e.g. most amino acids and derivatives) often contain structures that make them difficult to retain on conventional reversed phase columns.
Possible solutions to overcome these challenges, like the application of the CAD and the benefit of so-called mixed-mode stationary phases in impurity profiling for pharmacopoeial purposes were explored in this work. The related substances analyzed in this thesis comprise amino acids, inorganic ions, bisphosphonic acids, basic and acidic derivatives of amino acids (esters and amides).
The successful development and validation of mixed-mode liquid chromatography methods with CAD detection for carbocisteine and ibandronate sodium might help to increase the acceptance of this versatile detector in the pharmaceutical industry and in official authorities dealing with the determination of related substances.
The combination of UV and CAD detection proved very useful during the analysis of Bicisate. Most of the related substances and some unidentified impurities were detectable by CAD whereas a synthesis by-product, a semi-volatile ester, was only detectable in the UV trace. The simple combination covers all relevant impurities in a single analysis.
Two truly orthogonal methods regarding separation and detection for the enantiomeric purity of magnesium-L-aspartate helped to find the reason for elevated D aspartic acid content in the drug substance. A very quick and sensitive indirect separation using the OPA derivatization with NAC was developed as a powerful screening tool, whereas the direct separation of D- and L-CBQCA-Asp derivatives confirmed the results. Both methods were optimized in order to do without substances mentioned on the REACH list, like sodium tetraborate which is very frequently applied in standard derivatization protocols and CE separations.
The importance of orthogonal detection principles in the determination of related substances of amino acids was discussed in a review article dealing with the revision of amino acid monographs in the Ph. Eur..
This thesis focuses on the investigation of the electronic structure of amino acids and
salts in aqueous solution using X-ray spectroscopic methods. Both material groups are
of fundamental importance with regards to many physiological reactions, especially
for the Hofmeister effect which describes the solubility of proteins in salt solutions.
Hence, the investigation of the electronic structure of amino acids and the influence of
ions on the hydrogen bonding network of liquid water are important milestones to a
deeper understanding of the Hofmeister series.
Besides investigating the electronic structure of amino acids in aqueous solution,
the spectra were used to develop a building block model of the spectral fingerprints of
the functional groups and were compared to spectral signatures of suitable reference
molecules. In the framework of this thesis, it is shown that the building block approach
is a useful tool with allows the interpretation of spectral signatures of considerably
more complex molecules
In this work, the focus lies on the investigation of the occupied and unoccupied
electronic states of molecules in solid state, as well as in aqueous solution. Hereby,
different X-ray spectroscopic methods were applied. X-ray emission spectroscopy
(XES) was used to probe the occupied electronic structure of the solution, while the
unoccupied electronic structure was addressed by using X-ray absorption spectroscopy
(XAS). Finally, resonant inelastic X-ray scattering (RIXS) as a combination of XAS
and XES measurements provides the combined information about the unoccupied and
occupied molecular levels. The element specific character of the three measurement
methods is a feature which allows the investigation of the local electronic structure of
a single functional group. With RIXS, also non-equivalent atoms of the same element
can be addressed separately.
Within this thesis firstly, a library of the XE spectra of all 20 proteinogenic amino
acids in zwitterionic form is presented. From this sample-set XES fingerprints of
the protonated alpha-amino group NH3+ and the deprotonated carboxylic group COO- were evaluated and used to identify the XES fingerprints of the nitrogen and oxygen
containing functional groups of the side chains of the amino acids. The data is discussed
based on a building block approach. Furthermore, the XE spectra of the functional
groups of lysine and histidine, namely the NH2 group and the C3N2H4 ring structure,
are both compared to XE spectra of suitable reference molecules (imidazole, ammonia
and methylamine). It is found that the XE and RIXS spectra of the side chains of lysine
and histidine show large similarities to the XE spectra of the reference molecules. This
agreement in the XE and RIXS spectra allows a qualitative investigation of XE and
RIXS spectra of more complex amino acids using the XE and RIXS spectra of suitable
reference molecules.
The chemical structure of histidine and proline is quite different from the structures
of the other proteinogenic amino acids. Due to the unique chemical structure of
the side chain which in both cases consists of a heterocyclic ring structure, these two
amino acids were investigated in more detail. Zubavichus et al. [1] have shown that
amino acids are decomposing while exposed to X-ray radiation of the experiment. The
damage is irreversible and molecular fragments can adsorb on the membrane of the
experimental setup. This contamination can also create a spectral signature which
then overlaps with the signal of the solution and which complicates the interpretation
of the data. To record spectra which are free from contributions of adsorbed molecular
fragments on the membrane, the adsorption behavior was investigated.
In contrast to the solid phase in which the amino acids are present as salts in one
electronic conformation, the charge state of the amino acids can be manipulated in
aqueous solution by tuning the pH-value. By doing this, all possible charge states are
accessible (cation, anion, zwitterion). In this work it is shown that also the spectra
of the different charge states can be modeled by the spectra of suitable reference
molecules using the building block approach. The spectral changes occurring upon
protonation and deprotonation of the functional groups are explored and verified by
comparing them to theoretical calculations.
The comparison with measurements of pyrrolidine show that the electronic structure
which surrounds the nitrogen atom of proline is strongly influenced by the
ring structure of the side chain. Furthermore, the proline, pyrrolidine, and histidine
molecules are also degrading during the liquid sample measurements. This can be
observed by the detection of a new spectral component which increases with the
measurement time originating from the window membrane. In all cases, the speed of
the agglomeration of molecular fragments at the membrane was observed to be highly
sensitive to the pH value of the solution.
To understand the Hofmeister series, also the impact of the salt ions have to be
investigated. In this study the influence of potassium chloride (KCl) on the hydrogen
bond network of water was studied by using non-resonantly excited XES as well as
RIXS. A decreased dissociation of hydrogen molecules and changes in the molecular
vibrations could be detected. These changes were interpreted with a molecular
reorganization of the water molecules and a decreased number of hydrogen bonds.
Das Ziel vorliegender Arbeit war die Entwicklung einer HPLC-MS(/MS)-Methode, die im Rahmen der pharmazeutischen Qualitätskontrolle zur direkten Quantifizierung von Aminosäuren (AS) in Infusionslösungen angewendet werden kann. Die Zielset-zung schloss eine Validierung innerhalb der für die Zweckbestimmung vorgesehenen Grenzen ein. Im Rahmen der Methodenentwicklung wurde das ESI-MS/MS-Fragmentierungs-muster von 21 Aminosäuren, von 20 stabil-isotopenmarkierten Aminosäuren, die als interne Standards verwendet wurden, sowie von einigen weiteren Substanzen bestimmt. Nach Kenntnis von Precursor- und Produktionen erstellte man eine SRM-Methode zur spezifischen MS/MS-Analyse. Dabei wurden durch das jeweilige Frag-mentierungsmuster bedingte Interferenzen bei den zu untersuchenden Aminosäuren bestimmt, die bei der zu erarbeitenden HPLC-MS-Methode beachtet werden mussten. Die Methodenentwicklung zur HPLC-MS-Analytik von underivatisierten AS umfasste mit der RP-HPLC unter Verwendung eines Ionenpaarreagenzes (IP) und der hydrophilen Interaktionschromatographie (HILIC) zwei verschiedene chromatographi-sche Ansätze. Bei der Anwendung der RP-HPLC ergaben sich Probleme. Die Verwendung eines IP, im vorliegenden Fall TDFHA (Tridecafluorheptansäure), führte zu langen Equilibrierungs-, Re-Equilibrierungs- und Spülzeiten und damit bei zwar relativ kurzer HPLC-Laufzeit zu einem aber insgesamt hohen Zeitaufwand. Gleich-zeitig war die LC-MS-Anlage auf diese Anwendung fixiert, da das Ionenpaarreagenz das Gerät stark verschmutzte und dadurch andere Analysen erheblich störte. Zudem waren die Retentionszeiten der Analyten trotz langer Equilibrierungszeiten schlecht reproduzierbar, so dass eine solche Methode im Rahmen der pharmazeutischen Qualitätskontrolle schwer validierbar wäre. Weiterführende Untersuchungen erfolgten daher nicht. In nachfolgenden Studien mit der HILIC wurden verschiedene Einflussparameter (Anteil organischer Phase im Fließmittel, pH-Wert des Fließmittels, Temperatur der Säule, Pufferkonzentration im Fließmittel, Gradientenelution) auf die Trennung der AS an einer ZIC®-HILIC-Säule untersucht. Durch Optimierung der Parameter wurde so eine HILIC-HPLC-Methode entwickelt, bei der 21 AS und 20 ihrer isotopen-markierten Referenz-AS innerhalb von 20 min eluierten. Diejenigen AS, bei denen im Rahmen der Fragmentierungsstudien Interferenzen aufgrund gleicher bzw. ähnlicher Massen der Precursor- bzw. Produktionen aufgetreten waren, wurden chroma-tographisch getrennt. Gleichzeitig hat sich die SIM-Analyse als anwendbar erwiesen. Die Anwendung des spezifischeren SRM-Modus und damit der Tandem-Massenspektrometrie war nicht erforderlich. Im Rahmen der nachfolgenden Studien zur Validierung ergab sich, dass die entwickelte Methode über einen weiten Bereich eine lineare Abhängigkeit zwischen Konzentrations- und Messwerten zeigte. Für drei der 21 AS (NAcCys, NAcTyr, Pro) wurde die quadratische Regression mit dem Anpassungstest nach Mandel als geeig-neteres Regressionsmodell ermittelt. Bei Untersuchungen zur Wiederfindung wurde ein Einfluss der Matrix-Lösung der Infusionslösung festgestellt, der zu Abweichungen hinsichtlich des Quotienten AreaAS / AreaIS führte, so dass eine Quantifizierung innerhalb der geforderten Grenzen bei Kalibrierung über reine Standardlösungen nicht möglich war. Die Validierung wurde daher nachfolgend in der Matrixlösung durchgeführt. Dabei wurde gezeigt, dass mit der entwickelten HILIC-HPLC-MS-Methode Aminosäuren in Infusionslösungen mit hoher Präzision und Richtigkeit bestimmt werden können. Neun der 21 untersuchten AS konnten im Bereich von 30% - 350%, zehn weitere im Bereich von 50% - 350% innerhalb der zur Gehaltsbestimmung von pharmazeutischen Formulierungen vorgeschriebenen Grenzen (Wiederfindung Einzelbestimmung: 98% -102.0%, Mittelwert einer Dreifachbestimmung: 98.5% – 101.5%) quantifiziert werden. Für His und Phe gelang allerdings keine Quantifizierung innerhalb der Akzeptanzkriterien, wobei der Grund hierfür in weiteren Studien geklärt werden müsste. Mit der entwickelten Methode ist damit eine gleichzeitige Quantifizierung verschiedener AS-Infusionslösungsformulierungen möglich, die sich bei gleicher Matrix in der Konzentration an AS unterscheiden. Beispielsweise seien hier die Formulierungen „Aminoplasmal® E 5% / 10% /15%“ genannt, die mit der validierten Methode erfassbar sind. Die Probenvorbereitung beschränkt sich dabei auf den Zusatz der IS-Formulierung zur Infusionslösung und einen Verdünnungsschritt. Die Quanti-fizierung erfolgt über eine 5-Punkt-Kalibriergerade, die aus einer AS- und IS-Standardmischung, nach Zusatz der einfach herzustellenden Elektrolyt-Matrix, erstellt wird. Die Analysenzeit der HPLC-MS-Methode beträgt einschließlich Equilibrie-rungszeit 35 min und ist damit deutlich kürzer als die 120 min, die bei der nach wie vor zur AS-Analytik allgemein gebräuchlichen Ionenaustauschchromatographie mit Ninhydrin-Nachsäulenderivatisierung anzusetzen sind.
Das Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war die Klärung der Fragestellung, ob sich die quantitative NMR-Spektroskopie zur Bestimmung von Identität, Reinheit und Gehalt von Arzneistoffen eignet, und wie sich Präzision und Empfindlichkeit dieser Methode im Vergleich zu etablierten chromatographischen Verfahren verhalten. Die quantitative Untersuchung der drei strukturell jeweils verwandten Mehrkomponentengemische Codergocrinmesilat, Clomifencitrat und Flupentixoldihydrochlorid bewies eindrucksvoll die Eignung der 1H-NMR-Spektroskopie als orthogonale, analytische Messmethode im Vergleich zu validierten HPLC-Arzneibuchmethoden. Die im Rahmen einer Validierung der 1H-NMR-Methode ermittelten Ergebnisse erfüllten bezüglich Präzision und Richtigkeit die an eine im pharmazeutischen Bereich eingesetzte analytische Methode gestellten Anforderungen; zudem wurden weitere Prüfparameter wie Selektivität, Linearität, Robustheit und Stabilität verifiziert. Externe-Standard-Experimente wie "Zwei-Röhrchen-Methode" und ERETIC-Verfahren bestätigten die quantitativen Ergebnisse der Internen Standardisierung; jedoch wurde hier -- insbesondere für die ERETIC-Technik -- eine höhere Fehleranfälligkeit und somit eine größere Streuung der Einzelergebnisse beobachtet. Am Beispiel von Codergocrinmesilat und Flupentixoldihydrochlorid konnte zudem die Eignung anderer NMR-aktiver Kerne wie 13C und 19F für die quantitative Analyse von komplexen Substanzgemischen aufgezeigt werden. Das Potential der 1H-NMR-Spektroskopie für die Reinheitsprüfung von Arzneistoffen wurde am Beispiel der Aminosäure L-Alanin aufgezeigt. Die zu erwartenden Verunreinigungen Glutamin-, Asparagin-, Äpfel- und Fumarsäure konnten im Gegensatz zu den "veralteten" Prüfmethoden des Europäischen Arzneibuches eindeutig identifiziert und quantifiziert werden; mit einer Bestimmungsgrenze von <= 0.03% wurden die Vorgaben der ICH-Richtlinie Q3A(R2) erfüllt. Die deutliche Übereinstimmung der NMR-spektroskopisch ermittelten Ergebnisse einer quantitativ untersuchten Alanin-Modellmischung mit einer für den Routinebetrieb geeigneten HPLC-Methode unter Einsatz verschiedener Detektoren wie CAD, NQAD, ELSD und MS, sowie der Vergleich wichtiger Prüfparameter wie Linearität und Nachweisgrenze bestätigten die Eignung der 1H-NMR-Spektroskopie im Rahmen der routinemäßig durchgeführten Qualitätskontrolle. Die Aufdeckung von Arzneimittelfälschungen mit Hilfe der NMR-Spektroskopie wurde im Rahmen dieser Arbeit anhand der zwei aktuellen Fallbeispiele Heparin und Glycerin näher untersucht. Die in Zusammenhang mit dem Heparin-Skandal verantwortliche Kontaminante OSCS konnte neben Dermatansulfat und weiteren natürlich vorkommenden Glykosaminoglykan-Verunreinigungen im 1H-NMR-Spektrum eindeutig identifiziert und auf 0.1% OSCS bzw. 0.5% Dermatansulfat begrenzt werden. Eine präzise und richtige quantitative Bestimmung der beiden Glykosaminoglykane wurde über die N-Acetyl-Resonanzen mit Hilfe der Signalhöhenbestimmung und dem Standard-Additionsverfahren ermöglicht; deutliche Abweichungen vom "wahren" Gehalt wurden hingegen, bedingt durch starke Signalüberlagerungen, nach Flächenvergleich beobachtet. Weitere Verunreinigungen, insbesondere Lösungsmittelrückstände, die während des Extraktions- und Reinigungsprozesses des Heparins eingesetzt werden, konnten ebenfalls über charakteristische Resonanzen identifiziert und mit Hilfe der Internen-Standard-Methode quantitativ erfasst werden. Eine umfangreiche Untersuchung von 145 Heparin-API-Mustern mittels NMR-Spektroskopie und weiteren, neuentwickelten Verfahren wie HPLC, CE, IR- und Raman-Spektroskopie konnte die Eignung der entwickelten 1H-NMR-Methode bestätigen. Potentielle Glycerin-Kontaminanten wie Diethylenglycol und Ethylenglycol konnten ebenso wie eine weitere, natürlich vorkommende Verunreinigung, Propylenglycol, mittels 1H- und 13C-NMR-Spektroskopie identifiziert und quantifiziert werden. Beide Methoden erfüllten die in der USP beschriebenen Anforderungen, die für pharmazeutisch eingesetztes Glycerin jeweils höchstens 0.1% Diethylenglycol bzw. Ethylenglycol erlaubt. Während die quantitative Reinheitsprüfung beim Einsatz der 1H-NMR-Spektroskopie mit einer Messdauer im Bereich von etwa 30 min für den Routineeinsatz geeignet ist, ist die entwickelte quantitative 13C-NMR-Methode beim Einsatz von Spektrometern geringer Magnetfeldstärke aufgrund einer geringen Nachweisempfindlichkeit und der NOE-Problematik für den Routinebetrieb nur bedingt anwendbar. Abschließend kann zusammengefasst werden, dass die untersuchten Beispiele die NMR-Spektroskopie als in hohem Maße geeignet für die quantitative Analyse von Arzneimitteln ausweisen.
The work presented in this thesis was mainly targeted at exploring the capabilities of evaporation based LC detectors as well as further alternatives for the control of impurities in substances not exhibiting a suitable chromophore for UV-detection. In the course of the work carried out, several new methods for the identification, impurities control and composition testing of APIs were elaborated. An evaporation based detector that entered into the field of pharmaceutical analysis in the recent years was the Evaporative Light Scattering Detector (ELSD). However, non-reproducible spikes were reported when injecting concentrated test solutions as they are usually required for the control of impurities. The reasons, for the appearance of these spikes as well as possibilities for their avoidance were explored in a systematic study. Moreover, the dependence of the detector sensitivity on different eluent composition, eluent flow-rate and ELSD settings was investigated. In the course of the revision of the Ph.Eur. monographs for aspartic acid and alanine, a C18 reversed phase ion-pair LC method using 1 mmol/L of perfluoroheptanoic acid as an ion-pair reagent and a charged aerosol detector (CAD) was developed and fully validated for the purity control of Asp. The method was capable of separating the organic acids and major amino acids known to occur as process related impurities. With a slight modification, the method was also applicable for the purity control of Ala. Based on the developed LC-CAD method for the impurity control of alanine, a comparative study of the performance characteristics of different evaporation based LC detectors, i.e. ELSD, CAD and the recently developed Nano Quantity Analyte Detector (NQAD) was carried out. Additionally, an MS detector and qNMR were included in this study. It was found that the control of impurities in Alanine at an ICH conform level could be ensured using LC coupled to CAD, MSD and NQAD detection as well as by the use of qNMR. In terms of performance, prize and ease of use CAD and NQAD were found to be the most suitable alternatives. In terms of repeatability and sensitivity, the CAD appeared slightly superior to the NQAD. The quality of streptomycin sulfate is not sufficiently controlled by the current Ph.Eur. monograph in that an appropriate test for the control of the related substances is missing. A study was carried out to develop a C18 reversed phase ion-pair LC method using pentafluoropropionic acid as an ion-pair reagent and a CAD for the identification and control of the related substances. The developed method allowed the separation of 21 impurities from streptomycin. Moreover, coupling of the method to MS allowed the identification of the separated impurities. The method was shown to be sufficiently sensitive to control the related substances with a disregard limit of 0.1% as it is normally applied in the Ph.Eur. for products derived from fermentation. Currently, the aescin content of horse-chestnut standardized dry extract is determined using a complex and laborious photometric determination. A more selective LC-UV assay determination for beta-aescin has been proposed for the Ph.Eur. draft monograph of horse-chestnut standardized dry extract. Possibilities were explored to further improve the LC-method using detection by CAD. It was demonstrated that by the use of a modified LC-CAD method several problems related to the differences in the UV-response of the various components contained in the active aescin fraction could be eliminated. Moreover the proposed reference standard strategy was reviewed. Eventually, it was demonstrated on the example of two different clusters of pharmacologically active peptides how low energy collision induced dissociation mass spectrometry (low energy CID-MS) can successfully be used for identification testing in pharmacopoeial monographs. In this respect, the combination of a direct confirmation of the molecular mass via the m/z-ratio of the molecule ions with structural sequence information obtained by low energy CID-MS experiments was found to deliver a higher degree of certainty of the identity of a given substance than the set of tests currently described in the monographs. A significant gain in efficiency and throughput and important reduction of the amount of sample consumed during testing were identified as being additional advantages of this approach. Taken together, it could be demonstrated on various examples how recent technological advancements in the field of analytical chemistry can contribute to improve the quality control of APIs.