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As an emerging market for voice assistants (VA), the healthcare sector imposes increasing requirements on the users’ trust in the technological system. To encourage patients to reveal sensitive data requires patients to trust in the technological counterpart. In an experimental laboratory study, participants were presented a VA, which was introduced as either a “specialist” or a “generalist” tool for sexual health. In both conditions, the VA asked the exact same health-related questions. Afterwards, participants assessed the trustworthiness of the tool and further source layers (provider, platform provider, automatic speech recognition in general, data receiver) and reported individual characteristics (disposition to trust and disclose sexual information). Results revealed that perceiving the VA as a specialist resulted in higher trustworthiness of the VA and of the provider, the platform provider and automatic speech recognition in general. Furthermore, the provider’s trustworthiness affected the perceived trustworthiness of the VA. Presenting both a theoretical line of reasoning and empirical data, the study points out the importance of the users’ perspective on the assistant. In sum, this paper argues for further analyses of trustworthiness in voice-based systems and its effects on the usage behavior as well as the impact on responsible design of future technology.
Artificial Intelligence (AI) covers a broad spectrum of computational problems and use cases. Many of those implicate profound and sometimes intricate questions of how humans interact or should interact with AIs. Moreover, many users or future users do have abstract ideas of what AI is, significantly depending on the specific embodiment of AI applications. Human-centered-design approaches would suggest evaluating the impact of different embodiments on human perception of and interaction with AI. An approach that is difficult to realize due to the sheer complexity of application fields and embodiments in reality. However, here XR opens new possibilities to research human-AI interactions. The article’s contribution is twofold: First, it provides a theoretical treatment and model of human-AI interaction based on an XR-AI continuum as a framework for and a perspective of different approaches of XR-AI combinations. It motivates XR-AI combinations as a method to learn about the effects of prospective human-AI interfaces and shows why the combination of XR and AI fruitfully contributes to a valid and systematic investigation of human-AI interactions and interfaces. Second, the article provides two exemplary experiments investigating the aforementioned approach for two distinct AI-systems. The first experiment reveals an interesting gender effect in human-robot interaction, while the second experiment reveals an Eliza effect of a recommender system. Here the article introduces two paradigmatic implementations of the proposed XR testbed for human-AI interactions and interfaces and shows how a valid and systematic investigation can be conducted. In sum, the article opens new perspectives on how XR benefits human-centered AI design and development.
Plenty of theories, models, measures, and investigations target the understanding of virtual presence, i.e., the sense of presence in immersive Virtual Reality (VR). Other varieties of the so-called eXtended Realities (XR), e.g., Augmented and Mixed Reality (AR and MR) incorporate immersive features to a lesser degree and continuously combine spatial cues from the real physical space and the simulated virtual space. This blurred separation questions the applicability of the accumulated knowledge about the similarities of virtual presence and presence occurring in other varieties of XR, and corresponding outcomes. The present work bridges this gap by analyzing the construct of presence in mixed realities (MR). To achieve this, the following presents (1) a short review of definitions, dimensions, and measurements of presence in VR, and (2) the state of the art views on MR. Additionally, we (3) derived a working definition of MR, extending the Milgram continuum. This definition is based on entities reaching from real to virtual manifestations at one time point. Entities possess different degrees of referential power, determining the selection of the frame of reference. Furthermore, we (4) identified three research desiderata, including research questions about the frame of reference, the corresponding dimension of transportation, and the dimension of realism in MR. Mainly the relationship between the main aspects of virtual presence of immersive VR, i.e., the place-illusion, and the plausibility-illusion, and of the referential power of MR entities are discussed regarding the concept, measures, and design of presence in MR. Finally, (5) we suggested an experimental setup to reveal the research heuristic behind experiments investigating presence in MR. The present work contributes to the theories and the meaning of and approaches to simulate and measure presence in MR. We hypothesize that research about essential underlying factors determining user experience (UX) in MR simulations and experiences is still in its infancy and hopes this article provides an encouraging starting point to tackle related questions.
The design and evaluation of assisting technologies to support behavior change processes have become an essential topic within the field of human-computer interaction research in general and the field of immersive intervention technologies in particular. The mechanisms and success of behavior change techniques and interventions are broadly investigated in the field of psychology. However, it is not always easy to adapt these psychological findings to the context of immersive technologies. The lack of theoretical foundation also leads to a lack of explanation as to why and how immersive interventions support behavior change processes. The Behavioral Framework for immersive Technologies (BehaveFIT) addresses this lack by 1) presenting an intelligible categorization and condensation of psychological barriers and immersive features, by 2) suggesting a mapping that shows why and how immersive technologies can help to overcome barriers and finally by 3) proposing a generic prediction path that enables a structured, theory-based approach to the development and evaluation of immersive interventions. These three steps explain how BehaveFIT can be used, and include guiding questions for each step. Further, two use cases illustrate the usage of BehaveFIT. Thus, the present paper contributes to guidance for immersive intervention design and evaluation, showing that immersive interventions support behavior change processes and explain and predict 'why' and 'how' immersive interventions can bridge the intention-behavior-gap.
The concept of digital literacy has been introduced as a new cultural technique, which is regarded as essential for successful participation in a (future) digitized world. Regarding the increasing importance of AI, literacy concepts need to be extended to account for AI-related specifics. The easy handling of the systems results in increased usage, contrasting limited conceptualizations (e.g., imagination of future importance) and competencies (e.g., knowledge about functional principles). In reference to voice-based conversational agents as a concrete application of AI, the present paper aims for the development of a measurement to assess the conceptualizations and competencies about conversational agents. In a first step, a theoretical framework of “AI literacy” is transferred to the context of conversational agent literacy. Second, the “conversational agent literacy scale” (short CALS) is developed, constituting the first attempt to measure interindividual differences in the “(il) literate” usage of conversational agents. 29 items were derived, of which 170 participants answered. An explanatory factor analysis identified five factors leading to five subscales to assess CAL: storage and transfer of the smart speaker’s data input; smart speaker’s functional principles; smart speaker’s intelligent functions, learning abilities; smart speaker’s reach and potential; smart speaker’s technological (surrounding) infrastructure. Preliminary insights into construct validity and reliability of CALS showed satisfying results. Third, using the newly developed instrument, a student sample’s CAL was assessed, revealing intermediated values. Remarkably, owning a smart speaker did not lead to higher CAL scores, confirming our basic assumption that usage of systems does not guarantee enlightened conceptualizations and competencies. In sum, the paper contributes to the first insights into the operationalization and understanding of CAL as a specific subdomain of AI-related competencies.
Meal-concurrent media use has been linked to several problematic outcomes, including higher caloric intake and an increased risk for obesity. Nevertheless, the sociocultural and dispositional predictors of using media while eating are not yet well-understood, including potential cross-cultural differences. Inspired by the recent emergence of a new food-related media phenomenon called “mukbang”—digital eating broadcasts that have become immensely popular throughout East and Southeast Asia—we inquire 296 participants from two cultures (Germany and South Korea) about their meal-concurrent media use. Our results suggest that South Koreans tend to use media more frequently during meals than Germans, especially for social purposes. Meanwhile, younger age only predicts meal-concurrent media use in the German sample. Apart from that, however, many other examined predictors (e.g., gender, living situation, body-esteem, the Big Five) remain statistically insignificant, indicating notable universality for the behavior in question. In the second part of our study, we then put special focus on the emerging mukbang trend and conduct a theory-driven exploration of its gratifications. Doing so, we find that participants' parasocial and social experiences during eating broadcasts significantly predict their enjoyment of the genre.
Computer games are highly immersive, engaging, and motivating learning environments. By providing a tutorial at the start of a new game, players learn the basics of the game's underlying principles as well as practice how to successfully play the game. During the actual gameplay, players repetitively apply this knowledge, thus improving it due to repetition. Computer games also challenge players with a constant stream of new challenges which increase in difficulty over time. As a result, computer games even require players to transfer their knowledge to master these new challenges. A computer game consists of several game mechanics. Game mechanics are the rules of a computer game and encode the game's underlying principles. They create the virtual environments, generate a game's challenges and allow players to interact with the game. Game mechanics also can encode real world knowledge. This knowledge may be acquired by players via gameplay. However, the actual process of knowledge encoding and knowledge learning using game mechanics has not been thoroughly defined, yet. This thesis therefore proposes a theoretical model to define the knowledge learning using game mechanics: the Gamified Knowledge Encoding. The model is applied to design a serious game for affine transformations, i.e., GEtiT, and to predict the learning outcome of playing a computer game that encodes orbital mechanics in its game mechanics, i.e., Kerbal Space Program. To assess the effects of different visualization technologies on the overall learning outcome, GEtiT visualizes the gameplay in desktop-3D and immersive virtual reality. The model's applicability for effective game design as well as GEtiT's overall design are evaluated in a usability study. The learning outcome of playing GEtiT and Kerbal Space Program is assessed in four additional user studies. The studies' results validate the use of the Gamified Knowledge Encoding for the purpose of developing effective serious games and to predict the learning outcome of existing serious games. GEtiT and Kerbal Space Program yield a similar training effect but a higher motivation to tackle the assignments in comparison to a traditional learning method. In conclusion, this thesis expands the understanding of using game mechanics for an effective learning of knowledge. The presented results are of high importance for researches, educators, and developers as they also provide guidelines for the development of effective serious games.
We investigated the accuracy of gender stereotypes regarding digital game genre preferences. In Study 1, 484 female and male participants rated their preference for 17 game genres (gender differences). In Study 2, another sample of 226 participants rated the extent to which the same genres were presumably preferred by women or men (gender stereotypes). We then compared the results of both studies in order to determine the accuracy of the gender stereotypes. Study 1 revealed actual gender differences for most genres—mostly of moderate size. Study 2 revealed substantial gender stereotypes about genre preferences. When comparing the results from both studies, we found that gender stereotypes were accurate in direction for most genres. However, they were, to some degree, inaccurate in size: For most genres, gender stereotypes overestimated the actual gender difference with a moderate mean effect size.
Companies increasingly seek to use gay protagonists in audio-visual commercials to attract a new affluent target group. There is also growing demand for the diversity present in society to be reflected in media formats such as advertising. Studies have shown, however, that heterosexual consumers (especially men), who may be part of the company's loyal consumer base, tend to react negatively to gay-themed advertising campaigns. Searching for an instrument to mitigate this unwanted effect, the present study investigated whether carefully selected background music can shape the perceived gender of gay male advertising protagonists. In a 2 × 2 between-subjects online experiment (musical connotation × gender of the participant), 218 heterosexual participants watched a commercial promoting engagement rings that featured gay male protagonists, scored with feminine- or masculine-connoted background music. As expected, women generally reacted more positively than men to the advertising. Men exposed to the masculine-connoted background music rated the promoted brand more positively, and masculine music also enhanced (at least in the short term) these men's acceptance of gay men in general (low and medium effect sizes) more than was the case for feminine background music. Carefully selected background music affecting the perceived gender of gay male advertising protagonists may prevent negative reactions from heterosexual audiences and, therefore, motivate companies to use gay protagonists in television commercials on a more regular basis.
Hintergrundmusik wird in verschiedenen audiovisuellen Medienformaten häufig und meist mit einer ganz bestimmten Intention eingesetzt. Ziel dieser Dissertation war es, durch eine umfangreiche Aufarbeitung bisheriger Forschung Faktoren zu ermitteln und empirisch zu testen, die beeinflussen, dass Hintergrundmusik in audiovisuellen Medienformaten prognostizierbar die ihr zugesprochenen Funktionen erfüllt. Als interdisziplinärer Forschungsgegenstand bedarf Hintergrundmusik eines möglichst ausgewogenen Blickwinkels, der Musik- und Medienkontext-Spezifika (und deren potentielle Interaktionen) gleichermaßen berücksichtigt. Um Hintergrundmusik als komplexem audiovisuellen Stimulus in empirischer Forschung gerecht zu werden, spielen zudem auch praktische Implikationen eine große Rolle. Diese Herausforderungen berücksichtigend wurde die Wirksamkeit von Hintergrundmusik in fünf Studien im Kontext von drei verschiedenen Medienformaten untersucht. Da Werbung, Film und informationsvermittelnde Medienformate (wie Dokumentationen und TV-Magazine) die drei Kernfunktionen von Medien – Persuasion, Unterhaltung und Information – repräsentieren, sollte auf Grundlage dieses Dreiklangs die Bandbreite potenzieller Wirkungen von effektiv eingesetzter Musik und von Faktoren, die ihre Wirkung beeinflussen, möglichst umfassend (wenn auch sicher nicht vollständig) abgebildet werden. Über alle Medienformate hinweg kann als wichtiger, die Wirksamkeit von Hintergrundmusik verstärkender Einflussfaktor eine Kongruenz, d.h. eine intuitiv wahrgenommene Passung von Musik und Medienkontext ausgemacht werden, die durch eine sorgfältige Abstimmung der Spezifika von Musik und Medienformat auf emotionaler, auf assoziativer und auf struktureller Ebene erreicht werden kann. Findet diese Anwendung, kann Musik systematisch die Wirksamkeit von Werbespots steigern (Studie 1 und 2), gezielt Bedeutung vermitteln und dadurch die Wahrnehmung und Interpretation von (deutungsoffenen) Filmszenen prägen (Studie 3 und 4) oder unter bestimmten Bedingungen das persuasive Potenzial eines informationsvermittelnden Medienformats steigern und so die Meinungsbildung der Rezipierenden (zumindest kurzfristig) beeinflussen (Studie 5). Die Arbeit verdeutlicht, wie mittels interdisziplinärer Perspektivierung und der Beachtung praktischer Implikationen bereits etabliertes Wissen verstetigt und neue Erkenntnisse zur Verwendung und Wirkung von Hintergrundmusik für Wissenschaft und Medienpraxis abgeleitet werden können – inklusive eines Ausblicks auf daraus resultierende Potenziale für zukünftige Forschung.