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Sucrose- and H+-Dependent Charge Movements Associated with the Gating of Sucrose Transporter ZmSUT1
(2010)
Background: In contrast to man the majority of higher plants use sucrose as mobile carbohydrate. Accordingly protondriven sucrose transporters are crucial for cell-to-cell and long-distance distribution within the plant body. Generally very negative plant membrane potentials and the ability to accumulate sucrose quantities of more than 1 M document that plants must have evolved transporters with unique structural and functional features. Methodology/Principal Findings: To unravel the functional properties of one specific high capacity plasma membrane sucrose transporter in detail, we expressed the sucrose/H+ co-transporter from maize ZmSUT1 in Xenopus oocytes. Application of sucrose in an acidic pH environment elicited inward proton currents. Interestingly the sucrose-dependent H+ transport was associated with a decrease in membrane capacitance (Cm). In addition to sucrose Cm was modulated by the membrane potential and external protons. In order to explore the molecular mechanism underlying these Cm changes, presteady-state currents (Ipre) of ZmSUT1 transport were analyzed. Decay of Ipre could be best fitted by double exponentials. When plotted against the voltage the charge Q, associated to Ipre, was dependent on sucrose and protons. The mathematical derivative of the charge Q versus voltage was well in line with the observed Cm changes. Based on these parameters a turnover rate of 500 molecules sucrose/s was calculated. In contrast to gating currents of voltage dependentpotassium channels the analysis of ZmSUT1-derived presteady-state currents in the absence of sucrose (I =Q/t) was sufficient to predict ZmSUT1 transport-associated currents. Conclusions: Taken together our results indicate that in the absence of sucrose, ‘trapped’ protons move back and forth between an outer and an inner site within the transmembrane domains of ZmSUT1. This movement of protons in the electric field of the membrane gives rise to the presteady-state currents and in turn to Cm changes. Upon application of external sucrose, protons can pass the membrane turning presteady-state into transport currents.
Die Knochenhomöostase erfolgt durch das Zusammenspiel mehrerer Zelltypen. Während die Osteoblasten für den Knochenaufbau verantwortlich sind, resorbieren die Osteoklasten Knochengewebe. Beide Vorgänge werden durch die Osteozyten streng reguliert. Eine Störung im strikt regulierten Gleichgewicht zwischen Knochenabbau und Knochenaufbau kann daher zu Knochenkrankheiten wie Osteoporose führen. Auf molekularer Ebene erfolgt die Kommunikation zwischen den einzelnen Zelltypen über zwei wichtige Signalwege, den der „Bone Morphogenetic Protein“-Superfamilie (BMPs) und den der Wnt-Proteine. Die Signalübertragung wird hierbei durch sekretierte Faktoren induziert, die an Rezeptoren auf der Zelloberfläche binden. Deren Aktivierung führt zu einem intrazellulären Signal, welches letztlich die Expression von Zielgenen reguliert. Beide Signalwege werden auf mehreren Ebenen, extrazellulär, membranständig und intrazellulär reguliert. Das 2003 identifizierte Sclerostin ist ein Vertreter der extrazellulären Regulatorproteine und wurde aufgrund seiner Zugehörigkeit zur DAN-Familie zunächst fälschlicherweise als direkter Inhibitor des BMP-Signalwegs eingestuft. Mittlerweile wird allerdings davon ausgegangen, dass Sclerostin den Wnt-Signalweg negativ reguliert, indem es die Wnt Ko-Rezeptoren LRP5 und LRP6 bindet, die beide zu der Familie der „Low-density lipoprotein receptors“ gehören. Über den molekularen Inhibitionsmechanismus von Sclerostin war jedoch zum Startpunkt dieser Dissertationsarbeit wenig bekannt. Daher wurde Sclerostin im Rahmen dieser Arbeit biophysikalisch und biochemisch charakterisiert. Die Aufklärung mittels NMR-Spektroskopie ergab für Sclerostin eine Struktur, die sich in drei Regionen gliedert: den Cystinknoten, sowie einen „Loop“-Bereich und die Fingerregion. Vom zentralen Cystinknoten gehen drei Peptid-Schleifen in zwei entgegengesetzte Richtungen aus. Schleife eins und drei bilden eine definierte ß-Faltblattstruktur und ähneln zwei Fingern einer Hand. Die zweite Schleife, welche vom Cystinknoten isoliert in die entgegengesetzte Richtung verläuft („Loop“), ist wie die beiden langen N- und C-Termini flexibel und unstrukturiert. Die in Zusammenarbeit mit der Firma AbD-Serotec entstandenen Fab-Fragmente ermöglichten die Bestimmung des Bindeepitops der Sclerostin/LRP5-Interaktion im Bereich der unstrukturierten dritten Schleife von Sclerostin. Die Struktur von Sclerostin und die Identifikation des Bindeepitops auf Sclerostinseite geben nun erste Einblicke in den molekularen Mechanismus der Sclerostin/LRP5-Interaktion. Diese Kenntnis kann für die Entwicklung von Kleinmolekülinhibitoren mittels rationalem Drugdesign genutzt werden, welche, wie auch der in Kooperation entwickelte die Sclerostinaktivität neutralisierende Antikörper AbD09097, hochinteressante Ansätze für neuartige anabole Therapien von Krankheiten mit Knochenschwund darstellen.
Sphingolipide – Analytik, Biosynthese und Funktion in der Arabidopsis thaliana Pathogenantwort
(2010)
Sphingolipide (SPL) sind wichtige und ubiquitar verbreitete Bestandteile von Biomembranen. Aufgrund der enormen Vielfalt, der komplexen Struktur und diverser physiko-chemischer Eigenschaften der Sphingolipide gestaltet sich die qualitative und quantitative Untersuchung der Sphingolipide allerdings schwierig. In dieser Arbeit konnten, basierend auf publizierten Methoden, analytische Verfahren entwickelt werden, mit deren Hilfe sich die Gehalte spezifischer Sphingolipide in A. thaliana quantitativ nachweisen lassen. Unter Einsatz eines targeted metabolite profiling-Ansatzes wurde die Rolle spezifischer Sphingolipide in der Pflanzen-Pathogen Interaktion charakterisiert. Infiltration von avirulenten P. syringae pv. tomato (Pst) in Blätter von A. thaliana führte zu schnell und transient erhöhten Gehalten der freien Sphingobase Phytosphingosin (t18:0). Im Gegensatz zu avirulenten Pst kam es nach Infiltration von virulenten Pst zu einer schnellen Rückkehr auf Basalniveau und nicht zu einer hypersensitiven Antwort (HR), was auf eine positiv regulatorische Rolle von t18:0 in Abwehrreaktionen von Pflanzen hinwies, z.B. bei der HR. Damit konnte in der vorliegenden Arbeit zum ersten Mal gezeigt werden, dass die Spiegel freier Sphingobasen der Pflanze, insbesondere von t18:0, in Antwort auf bakterielle Pathogene reguliert werden. Diese spezifische Regulation korreliert, in Abhängigkeit von der Pathogeninfektion, mit dem Verlauf der HR. Im Unterschied zu avirulenten Stämmen sind virulente Pst in der Lage, Abwehrreaktionen des Wirtsorganismus zu unterdrücken. Daher tritt keine HR auf, welche die Ausbreitung des Pathogens stoppen könnte. Die unterschiedliche Beeinflussung der t18:0 Gehalte virulenter und avirulenter Stämme zeigte sich auch in Experimenten mit einem anderen P. syringae Stamm. Freie Sphingobasen zeigten in dieser Arbeit typische Merkmale von Signalmolekulen: geringe basale Spiegel, schnelle und transiente Gehaltsanderungen, präzise Regulation sowie spezifische Wirkeffekte. Sphingolipide stellen somit, neben den etwa durch PAMPs ausgelösten und durch Phytohormone vermittelten, weitere Signalwege in der Pflanzen Pathogen Interaktion dar. Die Infiltration von Pst in Blätter der A. thaliana Mutante sbh1-1 führte zu transient erhöhten d18:0 Spiegeln. In dieser Mutante ist die Funktion von einer der zwei Sphingobasen-Hydroxylasen gestört. Wie sich nach Totalhydrolyse zeigte, sind die Gesamtgehalte von t18:0 in der Mutante allerdings nicht reduziert. Dies spricht dafür, dass der pathogenabhängige transiente Anstieg von t18:0 durch de novo Synthese aus d18:0 entsteht und nicht durch Freisetzung aus komplexen Sphingolipiden mittels spezifischer Lipasen. Somit ist die Hydroxylase SBH1 für den schnellen signalvermittelten Anstieg von t18:0 verantwortlich. Neben t18:0 lösen auch strukturell ähnliche freie Sphingobasen, z.B. d18:1 und d18:0, Abwehrreaktionen und Zelltod aus, während andere Sphingobasen (d20:0 und d20:1) sowie Ceramide keine Reaktionen auslösten. Dies weist auch direkt auf die Spezifität der beteiligten Mechanismen hin.
Regulation of pathogen-inducible volatile compounds in Arabidopsis and their role in plant defense
(2010)
Plants are constantly attacked by pathogenic microbes. As a result, they have evolved a plethora of constitutive and inducible defense responses to defend against attempted pathogen infection. Although volatile organic compounds have been implicated in plant defense, direct evidence of their function in plant resistance is still lacking. I have examined the role of VOCs in Arabidopsis defense against the hemibiotrophic bacterial pathogen Pseudomonas syringae pv. maculicola. The obtained results show that the vegetative parts of Arabidopsis produces and emits the volatile phenylpropanoid MeSA and three kinds of terpenoids, (E,E)-4,8,12-trimethyltrideca-1,3,7,11-tetraene (TMTT), alpha-ionon and beta-farnesen, upon avirulent and virulent P. syringae inoculation. Whereas the most abundant volatiles, MeSA and TMTT, are already produced at early stages of infection in the compatible and incompatible interaction, enhanced emission of alpha-ionon and beta-farnesen can only be detected in later stages of the compatible interaction. It was revealed that pathogen-induced synthesis of TMTT in Arabidopsis requires the JA signaling pathway but occurs independently of SA defense signaling. Similarly, the production of MeSA is dependent on JA signaling but not on the SA defense signaling pathway. Furthermore, production of MeSA is dependent on the function of ISOCHORISMATE SYNTHASE1, which produces its precursor SA. Upon inoculation with avirulent P. syringae, endogenously produced JA activates the JA signalling pathway to mediate MeSA and TMTT synthesis. By contrast, in the compatible Arabidopsis-Psm interaction, production of MeSA predominantly depends on the P. syringea the virulence factor coronatine, which activates JA downstream signaling. To learn more about the role of inducible VOCs in plant defense responses, I have identified an Arabidopsis T-DNA insertions line with a defect in the TERPENE SYNTHASE4 (TPS4) gene. Emission profiles from this mutant revealed that the induced production of TMTT but not of alpha-ionone, beta-farnesene or MeSA are abolished, demonstrating that TPS4 specifically regulates the P. syringae-induced synthesis of TMTT in Arabidopsis. The lack of TMTT in tps4 mutants, however, does not affect plant defense responses and resistance induction against P. syringae. This excludes a role of the terpenoid as an effective phytoalexin in Arabidopsis leaves against the bacterial pathogen. Moreover, tps4 mutant plants are still able to mount a SAR response, excluding a signaling function of TMTT during SAR. An important aim of our studies was to address the defensive role of MeSA, the major VOC emitted from P. syringae-inoculated Arabidopsis leaves. MeSA has been recently proposed as a critical long distance signal in the development of SAR. I found that two independent T-DNA insertions lines with defects in expression of the pathogen-inducible SA methyl transferase gene BSMT1 are completely devoid of pathogen-induced production of MeSA. However, bsmt1 mutant plants are capable to increase the level of SA in systemic, non-infected leaves of Arabodopsis and develop SAR like wild-type plants upon local P. syringae-inoculation. Thus, MeSA does not function as a critical SAR signal in Arabidopsis. Further experiments showed that SA accumulation in distant leaves occurs due to de novo synthesis through isochorismate synthase. In addition, we also ruled out a critical defensive role of MeSA at inoculation sites, because bsmt1 mutants are able to build up SA-dependent defense responses and local resistance in a wild-type-like manner. The conversion of SA to MeSA and subsequently emission of MeSA from the plant might help the plant to detoxify an excess of SA. This process is regulated by the JA pathway and might be one means to mediate negative crosstalk between JA and SA signaling. Moreover, the COR-triggered conversion of SA to MeSA and emission of the volatile methyl ester could be a way by which virulent P. syringae is able to attenuate the SA-defense pathway.
In this study poplar trees have been examined under different stress conditions. Apart from the detailed descriptions above two main conclusions might be drawn: i) A small plant like Arabidopsis thaliana is highly susceptible to stress situations that might become life-threatening compared to a tree that has extremely more biomass at its disposal. Such an organism might be able to compensate severe stress much longer than a smaller one. It seems therefore reasonable that a crop like Arabidopsis reacts earlier and faster to a massive threat. ii) In poplar both tested stress responses seemed to be regulated by hormones. The reactions to abiotic salt stress are mainly controlled by ABA, which also has a strong impact upon cold and drought stress situations. The term commonly used for ABA is “stress hormone” and is at least applicable to all abiotic stresses. In case of herbivory (biotic stress), jasmonic acid appears to be the key-player that coordinates the defence mechanism underlying extrafloral nectary and nectar production. Thus the presented work has gained a few more insights into the complex network of general stress induced processes of poplar trees. Future studies will help to understand the particular role of the intriguing indirect defence system of the extrafloral nectaries in more detail.
The present study was aimed at revealing the early signalling events during the interaction of the diazotrophic soil bacterium Azospirillum brasilense with its host plant Arabidopsis thaliana. Furthermore, taking advantage of the micro array technique, a comprehensive overview of Arabidopsis genes has been undertaken which are affected upon association with A. brasilense The characterization of the early responses of Arabidopsis plants upon inoculation with Azospirillum brasilense strain Sp7 clearly indicated parallels with the initial events in plant pathogen interaction. For instance, not only bacterial preprations (lysates) form Azospirillum elicited an apoplastic alkalinization of the culture medium, but also the live bacteria, which were even more effective. Besides, in a luminol based assay, the bacterial lysates triggered production of the reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the Arabidopsis leaf discs. Interestingly, the elongation factor receptor mutants (efr) were completely insensitive to Azospirillum, suggesting elongation factor Tu (EF-TU) recognition as elicitor by Arabidopsis. This hypothesis was further validated with a bioinformatic approach. The N terminus initial 26 amino acids from Azospirillum EF-TU gene (elf26) showed more similarity to the elf26 sequences of bacteria like Agrobacterium tumefaciens which elicit responses in the plants through EF-TU rather than Pseudomonas syringae where the potent elicitor is flagellin 22. Universal transcriptome profiling of Arabidopsis thaliana seedlings upon inoculation with Azospirillum brasilense over a time course of six, twenty four and ninty six hours revealed very little genetic responses in the early time points. However, a bulk of genes was differentially regulated in 96 hours post inoculation (96hpi). The nature of these genes indicated that the bacterial treatment, among others, greatly affect the processes like cell wall modification, hormone metabolism, stress and secondary metabolism. Additionally expression levels of a numer of transcription factors (TFs) related to basic helix loop helix (BHLH) and MYB domain containing TF families were altered with Azospirillum inoculation. Particularly the BHLH TFs were among the most highly regulated genes. The array results from Azospirillum treated plants were further compared with the already available data emnating from treatment with flagellin 22 (flg22), oligogalacturonides (OGs) and Agrobacterium tumefaciens. Noteworthy, very different set of genes were affected upon inoculation with Azospirillum in relation to other treatments. Secondly a cluster of proteins involved in the biosynthesis of aliphatic glucosinolates (GSL) were uniquely induced upon Sp7 exposure. Genes operating in flavonoid biosynthesis also showed a distinct regulation trend in the comparative analysis. Taken together, the study in question provides insights into the early signalling events in the context of Azospirillum-Arabidopsis association and the bacterial signals recognized by the plants. The array data, at the same time, elucidates the genetic factors of Arabidopsis triggered upon association with Azospirillum brasilense.
Inoculation with plant pathogens induces a diverse range of plant responses which potentially contribute to disease resistance or susceptibility. Plant responses occuring in consequence of pathogen infection include activation of classical defence pathways and changes in metabolic activity. The main defence route against hemibiotrophic bacterial pathogens such as Pseudomonas syringae is based on the phytohormone salicylic acid (SA). SA-mediated responses are strictly regulated and have also been shown to depend on external factors, e.g. the presence of light. A major goal of this work was to provide a better understanding of the light dependency of plant defence responses mediated through SA. The second part of the project focussed on the influence of plant sterols on plant resistance. I analyzed leaf lipid composition and found that accumulation of the phytosterol stigmasterol in leaves and in isolated (plasma) membranes is a significant plant metabolic process occurring upon pathogen infection.
Arabidopsis thaliana (A.th.) mesophyll cells play a pivotal role in the regulation of the drought stress response. The signaling & transport components involved in drought stress regulation within lipid rafts of the plasma membrane were investigated by DRM isolation from highly purified plasma membranes. Detergent treatment with Brij-98 and Triton X-100 resulted in a total of 246 DRM proteins which were identified by nano HPLC-MS/MS. The majority of these proteins could be isolated by Triton X-100 treatment (78.5 %) which remains the ”golden” standard for the isolation of DRMs. Comparing in-gel and in-solution digestion approaches disclosed additional protein identifications for each method but the in-gel approach clearly delivered the majority of the identified proteins (81.8 %). Functionally, a clear bias on signaling proteins was visible – almost 1/3 of the detected DRM proteins belonged to the group of kinases, phosphatases and other signaling proteins. Especially leucine-rich repeat receptor-like protein kinases and calcium-dependent protein kinases were present in Brij-98 & Triton X-100 DRMs, for instance the calcium-dependent protein kinase CPK21. Another prominent member of DRMs was the protein phosphatase 2C 56, ABI1, which is a key regulator of the ABA-mediated drought stress response in A.th. The lipid raft localization of the identified DRM proteins was confirmed by sterol-depletion with the chemical drug MCD. Proteins which depend upon a sterol-rich environment are depleted from DRMs by MCD application. Especially signaling proteins exhibited a strong sterol-dependency. They represented the vast majority (41.5 %) among the Triton X-100 DRM proteins which were no longer detected following MCD treatment. AtRem 1.2 & 1.3 could be shown to be sterol-dependent in mesophyll cells as well as two CPKs (CPK10 & CPK21) and the protein phosphatase ABI1. AtRem 1.2 & 1.3 could be proven to represent ideal plant lipid raft marker proteins due to their strong presence in Triton X-100 DRMs and dependency upon a sterol-rich environment. When fluorescence labeled AtRem 1.2 & 1.3 were transiently expressed in A.th. leaves, they localized to small, patchy structures at the plasma membrane. CPK21 was an intrinsic member of Triton X-100 DRMs and displayed extreme susceptibility to sterol-depletion by MCD in immunological and proteomic assays. Calcium-dependent protein kinases (CPKs) have already been studied to be involved in drought stress regulation, for instance at the regulation of S-type anion channels in guard cells. Hence, further transient expression studies with the anion channel SLAH3, protein kinase CPK21 and its counterpart, protein phosphatase ABI1 were performed in Nicotiana benthamiana. Transient co-expression of CPK21 and the anion channel SLAH3, a highly mesophyll- specific homologue of the guard cell anion channel SLAC1, resulted in a combined, sterol-dependent localization of both proteins in DRMs. Supplementary co-expression of the counterpart protein phosphatase ABI1 induced dislocation of SLAH3 from DRMs, probably by inactivation of the protein kinase CPK21. CPK21 is known to regulate the anion channel SLAH3 by phosphorylation. ABI1 dephosphorylates CPK21 thus leading to deactivation and dislocation of SLAH3 from DRMs. All this regulative events are taking place in DRMs of A.th. mesophyll cells. This study presents the first evidence for a lipid raft-resident protein complex combining signaling and transport functions in A.th. Future perspectives for lipid raft research might target investigations on the lipid raft localization of candidate DRM proteins under presence of abiotic and biotic stress factors. For instance, which alterations in the DRM protein composition are detectable upon exogenous application of the plant hormone ABA? Quantitative proteomics approaches will surely increase our knowledge of the post-transcriptional regulation of gene activity under drought stress conditions.
Terrestrial actinomycetes are noteworthy producers of a multitude of antibiotics, however the marine representatives are much less studied in this regard. In this study, 90 actinomycetes were isolated from 11 different species of marine sponges that had been collected from offshore Ras Mohamed (Egypt) and from Rovinj (Croatia). Phylogenetic characterization of the isolates based on 16S rRNA gene sequencing supported their assignment to 18 different actinomycete genera representing seven different suborders. Fourteen putatively novel species were identified based on sequence similarity values below 98.2% to other strains in the NCBI database. A putative new genus related to Rubrobacter was isolated on M1 agar that had been amended with sponge extract, thus highlighting the need for innovative cultivation protocols. Testing for anti-infective activities was performed against clinically relevant, Gram-positive (Enterococcus faecalis, Staphylococcus aureus) and Gram-negative (Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa) bacteria, fungi (Candida albicans) and human parasites (Leishmania major, Trypanosoma brucei). Bioactivities against these pathogens were documented for 10 actinomycete isolates. These results show a high diversity of actinomycetes associated with marine sponges as well as highlight their potential to produce anti-infective agents.
Plants exposed to herbivory may defend themselves by attracting the “enemies of their enemies”, a phenomenon called induced indirect defense (IID). In this process, the de novo production and emission of volatile organic compounds (VOC) by the affected plant is activated via a jasmonic acid (JA) dependent signaling cascade. VOC can be very specific for the inducing herbivore as well as for the emitting plant. Carnivores as predatory mites and parasitoid wasps use these substances as prey- or host-finding cues. If the herbivore is parasitized successfully, its development is slowed and thus the damage of the plant is decreased. Additional abiotic stress may modulate the plant’s ability to produce and/or emit herbivore induced VOC. Ultraviolet (UV) radiation can have multiple physiological effects on plants, amongst others the activation of the expression of genes that are also activated during anti-herbivore defense. To investigate UV effects, foils with different UV transmittance were used to manipulate ambient solar radiation. One foil was permeable for the whole solar spectrum including UV radiation whereas the other excluded radiation below a wavelength of 400 nm. Soybean exposed to UV increased concentrations of isorhamnetin- and quercetin-based flavonoids as effective photo-protective compounds in the leaves and showed a reduced growth compared to plants exposed to ambient radiation lacking UV. The altered chemical composition of the leaves had no effect on food choice and performance of herbivorous Spodoptera frugiperda larvae. Photo-protection by flavonoids seems to be efficient to prevent further UV effects on IID as plants of both treatments emitted the same blend of induced VOC and hence females of the parasitoid Cotesia marginiventris did not prefer plants from on of the treatments in the olfactometer. Nitrogen is one important macronutrient for all trophic levels and thus deficiency of this nutrient was expected to affect IID of soybean profoundly. To manipulate N availability for soybean plants hydroponic culture was used. One treatment was cultured in a standard hydroponic solution whereas in the N deficiency treatment in the solution all salts containing N were replaced with N-free salts. In N deficient plants root biomass was increased to allow the plant to forage more efficiently for the nutrient. Despite this morphological adaptation, photosynthetic efficiency as well as leaf N and soluble protein content were reduced significantly in N deficient soybean. The N deficiency was passed on to the third trophic level as herbivores fed with the affected leaves had a reduced body N content on her part and showed a decreased growth but no feeding preference for the superior food. Parasitoids reared in such N deficient herbivores had significant lower pupal weight compared to parasitoids reared in hosts fed with fully fertilized soybean. N deficient plants emitted a quantitatively altered herbivore induced blend. The two terpenes β-Bergamotene and (E,E)-α-Farnesene were emitted in higher amounts whereas (Z)-3-Hexenyl-α-methylbutyrate was emitted in significantly lower amount. Despite this quantitatively modified VOC blend the parasitoids host-searching behavior was not affected. Heavy metals (HM) are proposed to affect various biochemical pathways in plants including defense pathways by production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the tissue. The ROS on its part may affect production and release of endogenous JA, an important messenger in defense signaling. In this study maize plants were grown hydroponically and exposed to different increased concentrations of copper and cadmium. Maize seems to be able to exclude the excess HM from the leaves because the HM were found mainly in the roots and only to a minor degree in the shoots of the plants. Despite this exclusion the HM significantly affected uptake of other metal ions into the plant. The excess of the HM in combination with the attenuated uptake of other ions led to a reduced growth of roots and shoots as well as to reduced photosynthetic efficiency. Thus the nutritional value of the plants for the herbivore was lowered either by direct toxic effects of the HM or indirectly by altering plant chemical composition. S. frugiperda larvae fed with leaves exposed to high HM concentrations showed a significantly reduced growth but they did prefer neither control nor HM treated plants in a food-choice assay. Cu had a transient priming effect on JA as pre-exposure to a high excess of Cu led to higher amounts of herbivore induced JA compared to control plants exposed only to standard concentration of Cu. As anticipated the increased JA was followed by an increase in herbivore induced VOC in high-Cu treated plants caused by a increase of the green leaf volatiles (E)-3-Hexenal, (Z)-3-Hexenol and (Z)-3-Hexenylacetat and the terpenes Linalool, (E)-α-Bergamotene, (E)-β-Farnesene, and β-Sesquiphellandrene. Despite these profound changes in herbivore induced VOC the parasitoids host searching behavior was not affected. As described, the abiotic stresses UV, N deficiency and excess HM affected the morphology and physiology of soybean and maize, the performance of the herbivore S. frugiperda and even the performance of the parasitoid C. marginiventris. However the host searching behavior of the parasitoid was not affected even if the herbivore induced VOC blend was altered. Thus parasitoids seem to be a very reliable defender for plants and IID a very robust way of herbivore defense.