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Regulation of B lymphocyte terminal differentiation and death by the transcription factor Blimp-1
(2005)
B lymphocyte induced maturation protein-1 (Blimp-1) and X-box-binding protein-1 (XBP-1) are indispensible transcription factors required for B lymphocyte terminal differentiation into Ig secreting plasma cells. Occurrence of an unfolded protein response (UPR) and XBP-1 splicing, due to elevated Ig levels, are critical events during plasma cell generation. However, the upstream molecule sufficient to trigger these events remain elusive. Because ectopic expression of Blimp-1 in B cells is sufficient to generate plasma cells, it is plausible that Blimp-1 might be the upstream molecule, sufficient for the induction of UPR and XBP-1 splicing. The results from the current study indicate that ectopic expression of Blimp-1 or its N-terminal domain, in B cells, is sufficient to induce XBP-1 splicing, UPR and Ig (immunoglobulin) secretion. Further more Blimp-1 is able to directly repress the antiapoptotic gene A1, by binding to specific DNA elements in A1 promoter. This repression of A1 by Blimp-1 seems to be an important prerequisite for Plasma cell differentiation because ectopic expression of A1 in primary B cells resulted in reduced immunoglobulin secretion.
In dieser Arbeit wurden im Versuchstier Ratte die Transmission von T.gondii über die Muttermilch und deren immunologische Konsequenzen analysiert. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass sich Rattenmilch als labordiagnostisches Medium eignet, wobei der direkte visuelle Parasitennachweis mit dem Lichtmikroskop, trotz verschiedender Aufbereitungsmethoden erfolglos blieb. Auch die PCR eignete sich für unsere Versuche nicht als Nachweismethode. Als geeignte und sensitive Methode für den Parasitennachweis in Rattenmilch stellte sich die Anzucht auf humanen Vorhautfibroblasten (HFF-Zellkultur)dar, wobei bereits zwei Tachyzoiten, die in vitro zu Milch nicht infizierter Tiere gegeben wurden, ausreichten, um eine HFF-Zelle zu infizieren. Immunisierungsexperimente wurden durchgeführt, um die Frage zu klären, ob die im Serum von Jungtieren nachgewiesenen Toxoplasma-spezifischen Immunglobulinen über die Muttermilch aufgenommen worden sein könnten. Es gelang in Milch und Serum der Ammen, sowie im Serum der Jungtiere, T. gondii spezifische Immunglobuline nachzuweisen. Die Transmission des Parasiten als freier Tachyzoit wurde in dieser Arbeit simuliert. Tachyzoiten von T. gondii wurden in verschiedener Dosierung in Rattenmilch angereichert und 48 Stunden alten Ratten verabreicht. Die humorale und zelluläre Immunantwort wurde getestet. Tachyzoiten, die über die Milch aufgenommen wurden, können eine Infektion auslösen. Ratten wurden schließlich auf natürlichem Wege über Milch mit T. gondii infiziert, die humorale Immunantwort bestimmt und der Gehalt der infizierten Rattenmilch an Immunglobulinen überprüft. Die Antikörperkonzentration in Serum und Milch der Ammen zeigte eine deutliche Korrelation und im Serum der Nachkommen ließen sich ebenfalls Antikörper nachweisen. Zeichen einer Infektion fanden sich jedoch nicht. Die Rattenmilch kann also T. gondii und toxoplasmaspezifische Immunglobuline enthalten, die von Nachkommen aufgenommen werden. Den Mechanismus der Parasitenübertragung und die Rolle maternaler parasitenspezifischer Immunglobuline für Infektion und parasitenspezifische Immunantwort der Nachkommen gilt es jedoch noch zu klären.
iNKT cells are a population of T cells with unique characteristics. In contrast to most αβ T cells which recognize peptides presented by highly polymorphic MHC molecules, iNKT cells are reactive to glycolipids presented by CD1d, a non-polymorphic MHC-I like molecule. Moreover, whereas MHC-restricted αβ T cells bear highly variable receptors (TCRs) formed after somatic recombination of the V(D)J gene segments, the TCR of iNKT cells is formed by an invariant α chain, which always contains the same gene segments: AV14 and AJ18; and a β chain of limited BV gene usage: BV8S2, BV7 or BV2, in the mouse. This invariant α chain is the reason for which these cells are named “i” and the NK part of their name refers to the expression of receptors typical of natural killer (NK) cells. iNKT cells recognize glycolipids of endogenous and microbial origin. After activation they secrete large amounts of very different cytokines such as IFN-γ and IL-4 and thus influence immune responses and pathological conditions. One of the most potent iNKT cell agonists, recognized by the semi-invariant TCR, is the synthetic glycolipid α-Galactosylceramide (α-Gal). iNKT cells can be visualized using CD1d-multimeric complexes loaded with α-Gal and flow cytometry, since this reagent has enough avidity to stain these cells. Interestingly, mouse iNKT cells can be stained with human α-Gal-loaded CD1d oligomers and human iNKT cells can also be visualized with mouse α-Gal-loaded CD1d oligomers, indicating a high degree of conservation of the recognition of α-Gal presented by CD1d through evolution. Previous studies showed that rats have the genes necessary to build semi-invariant TCRs: They have a CD1d homologue; one or two BV8S2 homologues and interestingly, up to ten AV14 gene segments, which are highly conserved when compared to the mouse genes. Importantly, it has been shown at least for two of these AV14 gene segments that they can produce invariant TCRα chains which, when coexpressed with BV8-containing β chains, react to α-Gal presented by rat CD1d. Furthermore, ex vivo stimulation of primary splenocytes with α-Gal results in the secretion of IL-4 and IFN-γ. Surprisingly, rat semi-invariant TCRs do not recognize α-Gal presented by mouse CD1d and accordingly, mouse α-Gal-loaded CD1d tetramers failed to stain a discrete population of rat iNKT cells. Taking all together, despite that strong evidence suggested that iNKT cells are present in the rat, the direct identification of such population and the analysis of CD1d-restricted immune responses were still pending for this species. Hence the work presented in this doctoral thesis was aimed to identify iNKT cells, to analyze their phenotype and also to study the distribution and function of CD1d in the rat. For these purposes, we produced essential reagents which were still lacking such as rat specific anti-CD1d monoclonal antibodies and rat CD1d oligomers. Importantly, two of three anti-rat CD1d monoclonal antibodies (all of them generated in our laboratory before this thesis was initiated) also recognized mouse CD1d and therefore allowed a direct comparison of CD1d expression between rat and mouse. Whereas CD1d distribution in the hematopoietic system was found to be extremely similar between these two species; in non-lymphatic tissues important differences were observed. Interestingly, CD1d protein was detected at not yet described sites such as the rat exocrine pancreas and rat and mouse Paneth cells. These monoclonal antibodies did not only allowed the analysis of CD1d expression, but also the first demonstration of the function of rat CD1d as an antigen presenting molecule, since cytokine release in response to α-Gal was blocked when they were added to ex vivo cultures of rat primary cells. Staining of primary rat iNKT cells (possible now with the newly generated rat CD1d oligomers) revealed interesting similarities with human iNKT cells. First, we observed that rat iNKT cells are only a minority among all NKR-P1A/B positive T cells. Human iNKT cells constitute also a very small proportion of NKR-P1A (CD161) expressing T cells, whereas in mice inbred strains which express NKR-P1C (NK1.1), most of NKRP1C expressing T cells are iNKT cells. Second, the majority of rat iNKT cells are either CD4 or DN and only a small proportion expresses CD8β. These findings are similar to humans and different to mice which lack CD8+ iNKT cells. Third, analysis of various inbred rat strains demonstrated different iNKT cell frequencies which correlated with cytokine secretion after α-Gal stimulation of primary cells. In comparison to mice, iNKT cell numbers are markedly reduced in rats. In F344 rats, inbred rat strain which released the highest cytokine amounts after α-Gal stimulation, approximately 0.25% and 0.1% of total liver and spleen lymphocytes, respectively, are iNKT cells. In contrast, in LEW rats iNKT cells were practically absent and neither IL-4 nor IFN-γ were detected after stimulation of primary cells with α-Gal. Once more, these frequencies are very close to those observed in humans. Last, as reported for human peripheral blood cells, rat iNKT cells could be easily expanded in vitro by adding α-Gal to cultures of intrahepatic lymphocytes, whereas the expansion of mouse iNKT cells was not possible using the same protocol. The presence of a multimember AV14 gene segment family in the rat is an intriguing characteristic. These AV14 gene segments are extremely homologous except in the CDR2α region. Based on the amino acid sequence of this region they have been divided into two different types: Type I and II. A specific tissue distribution of the different types was proposed in the first study where the presence of several AV14 gene segments was described. We also analyzed the AV14 gene segment usage in F344 and LEW inbred rat strains. In F344 rats we found no preferential usage of either AV14 gene segment type in the spleen and the liver but type II AV14 gene segments appeared more frequently in the thymus. In contrast, LEW rats show a preferential usage of type I AV14 gene segments in all three compartments analyzed: Thymus, spleen and liver. Taken all together, the usage of newly generated reagents allowed to gain novel insights into CD1d expression in the rat and in the mouse and to directly identify rat iNKT cells for the first time. The phenotypic and functional analysis of rat iNKT cells revealed numerous similarities with human iNKT cells. These are of special interest, since rats serve to investigate several pathological conditions including models for autoimmune diseases. The possibility now to analyze iNKT cells and CD1d-restricted T cell responses in the rat might help to understand the pathogenesis of such diseases. In addition, the uncomplicated in vitro expansion and culture of rat iNKT cells should facilitate the analysis of the immunomoldulatory capacities of these cells.
In Ratten und Mäusen aktiviert der superagonistische anti-CD28 monoklonale Antikörper (CD28SA) vorzugsweise regulatorische T-Zellen. In niedriger Dosierung führt CD28SA zu einer fast ausschließlichen Aktivierung von regulatorischen T-Zellen (Tregs). Diese Beobachtung konnte inzwischen auch für menschliche Zellen in Zellkultur bestätigt werden.
In gesunden und freiwilligen Testpersonen deutet die Zytokin-Antwort nach Applikationen von niedrigen CD28SA-Dosen darauf hin, dass sich diese Beobachtung auch in-vivo bewahrheitet. Eine Gabe von CD28SA in niedriger Dosierung, die zu einer exklusiven Aktivierung von regulatorischen T-Zellen führt, könnte somit in der Behandlung von Autoimmunkrankheiten oder von entzündlichen Erkrankungen eingesetzt werden.
Eine mechanistische Erklärung für dieses Phänomen blieb lange Zeit unklar. Die CD28SA-vermittelte T-Zell-Aktivierung ist abhängig von der Verstärkung von basalen tonischen Signalen, die T-Zellen über ihren T-Zell-Rezeptor erhalten. Diese Tatsache führte zu der Hypothese, dass die schwachen, tonischen Signale, die konventionelle CD4+ T-Zellen in Abwesenheit ihrer spezifischen Antigene über den T-Zell-Rezeptor erhalten, ein stärkeres CD28 Signal für ihre Aktivierung benötigen als die selbstreaktiven regulatorischen T-Zellen, die ein stärkeres Selbstpeptid-TCR Signal erhalten.
In dieser Arbeit konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Blockade von MHC-Klasse-II-Molekülen in Mäusen, in-vitro und in-vivo, den Vorteil der regulatorischen T-Zellen gegenüber den konventionellen T-Zellen bezüglich der Antwort auf niedrige CD28SA Dosierungen, aufhebt.
MDSCs are suppressive immune cells with a high relevance in various pathologies including cancer, autoimmunity, and chronic infections. Surface marker expression of MDSCs resembles monocytes and neutrophils which have immunostimulatory functions instead of suppressing T cells. Therefore, finding specific surface markers for MDSCs is important for MDSC research and therapeutic MDSC manipulation. In this study, we analyzed if the integrin VLA-1 has the potential as a novel MDSC marker. VLA-1 was expressed by M-MDSCs but not by G-MDSCs as well as by Teff cells. VLA-1 deficiency did not impact iNOS expression, the distribution of M-MDSC and G-MDSC subsets, and the suppressive capacity of MDSCs towards naïve and Teff cells in vitro. In mice, VLA-1 had no effect on the homing capability of MDSCs to the spleen, which is a major reservoir for MDSCs. Since the splenic red pulp contains collagen IV and VLA-1 binds collagen IV with a high affinity, we found MDSCs and Teff cells in this area as expected. We showed that T cell suppression in the spleen, indicated by reduced T cell recovery and proliferation as well as increased apoptosis and cell death, partially depended on VLA-1 expression by the MDSCs. In a mouse model of multiple sclerosis, MDSC injection prior to disease onset led to a decrease of the disease score, and this effect was significantly reduced when MDSCs were VLA-1 deficient. The expression of Sema7A by Teff cells, a ligand for VLA-1 which is implicated in negative T cell regulation, resulted in a slightly stronger Teff cell suppression by MDSCs compared to Sema7A deficient T cells. Live cell imaging and intravital 2-photon microscopy showed that the interaction time of MDSCs and Teff cells was shorter when MDSCs lacked VLA 1 expression, however VLA-1 expression had no impact on MDSC mobility. Therefore, the VLA-1-dependent interaction of MDSC and Teff cells on collagen IV in the splenic red pulp is implicated MDSC-mediated Teff cell suppression.