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Synthese und Relevanz von Oxylipinen in Blättern, Wurzeln und Samen von \(Arabidopsis\) \(thaliana\)
(2016)
Die Lipidoxidation kann sowohl enzymatisch als auch nicht enzymatisch erfolgen. Der erste Schritt der enzymatischen Oxidation wird durch Lipoxygenasen katalysiert, von welchen es in Arabidopsis thaliana sechs verschiedene Isoformen gibt. Dabei werden die Lipoxygenasen nach dem Kohlenstoffatom klassifiziert, welches sie oxidieren. Somit gehören die LOX1 und LOX5 zu den 9-Lipoxygenasen, während LOX2, LOX3, LOX4 und LOX6 zu den 13 Lipoxygenasen zählen. Während der Samenalterung findet vermehrt eine Lipidperoxidation statt, welche mit einem Verfall des Samens sowie einer verringerten Keimrate korreliert. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurde zunächst erfolgreich ein System zur künstlichen Samenalterung von Arabidopsis thaliana etabliert. Bei der künstlichen Alterung stiegen ähnlich wie bei der natürlichen Samenalterung oxidierte Lipide an und die Keimrate fiel ab. Nach Alterung konnte ein Anstieg von sechs verschiedenen oxidierten Triacylglycerolen detektiert werden. Es konnte in dieser Arbeit mit Hilfe von Mutanten mit Defekten in mehreren der Lipoxygenase Gene gezeigt werden, dass die Oxidation dieser veresterten Fettsäuren zum größten Teil nicht enzymatisch erfolgt. Bei der Alterung stiegen zudem enzymatisch gebildete 9 Lipoxygenase Produkte wie freie Hydroxy- und Ketofettsäuren an. Bei einer Analyse der freien oxidierten Fettsäuren konnte ebenfalls mit Lipoxygenase Mutanten ermittelt werden, dass diese hauptsächlich via LOX1 oxidiert werden. Die Untersuchung der Keimraten der Lipoxygenase Mutanten nach Alterung zeigte in mehreren Versuchen eine leicht erhöhte Keimrate der lox1 im Vergleich zum Wildtyp. Eine exogene Behandlung von Wildtyp Samen mit verschiedenen 9-Lipoxygenase Produkten, welche bei der Alterung ansteigen, führte allerdings nicht zu einer Keimungshemmung. Somit scheinen Produkte wie Hydroxy- und Ketofettsäuren der 9-Lipoxygenase LOX1 nicht die Hauptursache für die Keimungshemmung nach Alterung zu sein.
Darüber hinaus konnte in dieser Arbeit gezeigt werden, dass eine Behandlung der Blüten des Wildtyps mit Methyljasmonat zu einer signifikant höheren Keimrate der Samen im Vergleich zu Samen von unbehandelten Pflanzen nach Alterung führt. Ein „Lipidprofiling“ der Samen von mit Methyljasmonat behandelten Pflanzen wies signifikant geringere Gehalte sowohl an freien als auch veresterten oxidierten Fettsäuren auf, was mit einer erhöhten Lebensfähigkeit korrelierte. Diese Erkenntnisse könnten von großer Relevanz für die Landwirtschaft sein, falls eine Übertragung auf Nutzpflanzen möglich ist.
Ein weiterer Schwerpunkt dieser Arbeit war eine eingehende Untersuchung der Rolle und Funktion der LOX6. Mit Hilfe von GUS Färbungen konnte eine Lokalisation der LOX6 in Blättern und Wurzeln nachgewiesen werden.
Zudem wurde ein 35SLOX6GFP Konstrukt erstellt und in Arabidopsis thaliana Pflanzen stabil transformiert. Mit den selektionierten Linien könnte in Zukunft auch die intrazelluläre Lokalisation der LOX6 untersucht werden. Außerdem wurden Konstrukte mit dem Reportergen GFP und AOS sowie LOX2 hinter dem 35S Promotor kloniert, welche ebenfalls für weitere Lokalisations- und Kolokalisationsstudien genutzt werden können. Zudem wurde mit der Klonierung eines Konstruktes begonnen, um in Zukunft einen spezifischen LOX6 Antikörper herstellen und auch die endogene LOX6 Lokalisation in dem Wildtyp analysieren zu können. Um die Produkte der LOX6 zu untersuchen, wurden 35SLOX6 Linien sowie die lox6 Mutante verwendet. Obwohl Hydroxyfettsäuren und Jasmonate Folgeprodukte der LOX6 sind, wiesen die 35SLOX6 Linien weder basal, noch nach Stress erhöhte Gehalte dieser im Vergleich zum Wildtyp auf. Somit geben die 35SLOX6 Linien einen Hinweis darauf, dass LOX6 im Wildtyp nicht limitierend für die Produktion von Hydroxyfettsäuren und Jasmonaten sein könnte. Um zu untersuchen, ob das Substrat der LOX6 der limitierende Faktor sein könnte, wurde eine Behandlung mit α Linolensäure durchgeführt. Dabei entstanden allerdings nicht mehr Folgeprodukte der LOX6, sondern es fand sowohl in den 35SLOX6 Linien als auch in dem Wildtyp eine massive nicht enzymatische radikalische Oxidation der Fettsäuren statt. Um festzustellen, ob sich durch eine LOX6 Überexpression das Metabolom ändert, wurde eine „untargeted Analyse“ mit 35SLOX6 Linien durchgeführt. Diese zeigte vier Metabolite, welche in den 35SLOX6 Linien im Vergleich zum Wildtyp unterschiedlich stark vorhanden waren. Zudem sollte untersucht werden, ob sich die Physiologie und Stressresistenz in den Überexpressionslinien im Vergleich zum Wildtyp unterscheiden. Dabei zeichneten sich die 35SLOX6 Linien durch kleinere, hellere und rundere Blätter aus. Zudem wurden die Wurzeln der 35SLOX6 Linien bei Fraßversuchen mit Pocellio scaber im Vergleich zum Wildtyp weniger bevorzugt gefressen. Diese Erkenntnisse sowie die generierten Konstrukte und Pflanzenlinien können in der Zukunft einen weiteren Einblick in die vielfältigen Funktionen und Produkte der LOX6 gewähren.
Die Biosynthese von fragmentierten Fettsäuren (kurzkettige Dicarbonsäuren und deren Oxocarbonsäure-Vorstufen) ist in den meisten Pflanzen noch unklar. Wichtige, bekannte Dicarbonsäuren sind Pimelinsäure (PIM) und Azelainsäure (AZA) mit den putativen Vorstufen 7-Oxo¬heptanonsäure (OHA) und 9-Oxononanonsäure (ONA). Es besteht großes Interesse die Biosynthese¬mechanismen und die Regulation der Synthese dieser Substanzen aufzuklären, da Fettsäure¬fragmente an wichtigen biologischen Prozessen beteiligt sind. PIM ist eine essentielle Vorstufe von Biotin in Mikroben, Pilzen und Pflanzen. Bisher konnte die Biosynthese von PIM nur in Bakterien (E. coli und B. subtilis) aufgeklärt werden. Es gibt keine Hinweise auf einen analogen Mechanismus in Pflanzen. Eine biologische Aktivität von AZA bei Pflanzen konnte erst vor kurzem beschrieben werden. Eine Forschergruppe identifizierte AZA als Metabolit, der nach Infektion mit dem Pathogen Pseudomonas syringae vermehrt im Phloemsaft von Arabidopsis vorhanden ist und der in Pflanzen eine lokale und systemische Resistenz gegenüber dem Pathogen induziert. In Tieren sind Fettsäurefragmente ebenfalls Gegenstand aktueller Forschung. Es ist bekannt, dass eine nichtenzymatische oxidative Fragmentierung von Fettsäurehydroperoxiden in komplexen Membranlipiden als Folge von oxidativem Stress abläuft. Phospholipide mit veresterter ONA / AZA spielen aufgrund ihrer Struktur eine Rolle als endogene Liganden bei Reaktionen des angeborenen Immunsystems. Ziel dieser Arbeit war es, die Mechanismen der Oxidation von Fettsäuren und deren Fragmentierung in Pflanzen aufzuklären. Weiterhin sollte die Rolle der oxidierten Fragmente in der Immunantwort der Modellpflanze Arabidopsis thaliana untersucht werden. In Pflanzen wurden fragmentierte Fettsäuren im Rahmen dieser Arbeit erstmals in komplexen Lipiden identifiziert und verschiedene Hypothesen zur Bildung von Fettsäurefragmenten experimentell überprüft. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Biosynthese der Fettsäurefragmente in A. thaliana ausgehend von zwei- oder dreifach ungesättigten Fettsäuren stattfindet. 9- und 13-Lipoxygenasen (LOX1, LOX5 und LOX2) spielen dabei keine essentielle Rolle. Die Fettsäurefragmente konnten in Arabidopsis in freier Form und in komplexen Lipiden verestert (ausschließlich in Galactolipiden) detektiert werden. Applikationsexperimente zeigten, dass die Biosynthese der Fettsäurefragmente in den komplexen Lipiden auf nichtenzymatischem Wege in situ stattfindet. Dabei wird in Übereinstimmung mit den experimentellen in vitro und in vivo Daten als Reaktionsmechanismus die Dimer-Hypothese der Arbeitsgruppe um Alan Brash vorgeschlagen. In grünen Pflanzenteilen verläuft die Biosynthese demzufolge in drei Schritten ab: Im ersten Schritt entsteht ein „Pool“ von oxidierten Galactolipiden mit Hydroperoxid-Acylketten (mit konjugierten Dienen). Diese Hydroperoxide entstehen fortlaufend durch Oxidation der Fettsäureacyle mittels Singulett Sauerstoff in Plastiden. Nach Infektion mit dem Pathogen P. syringae (avirulenter Stamm) wird der „Pool“ von Galactolipidperoxiden durch die katalytische Einwirkung von freien Radikalen und der LOX2 erhöht. Im zweiten Schritt findet eine Radikal-katalysierte Addition von Peroxylradikalen an Fettsäurehydroperoxide statt, wobei Lipid-Peroxid-Dimere gebildet werden. Diese instabilen Zwischenprodukte zerfallen spontan in vier Produkte, darunter zwei Aldehyd-Fragmente, ein Alkoxyradikal und ein Hydroxylradikal. Bemerkenswert ist, dass durch die Fragmentierung des Dimers weitere Radikale de novo entstehen. Im dritten Schritt können die in Galactolipiden veresterten Oxocarbonsäuren zu Dicarbonsäuren oxidiert werden. Hydroperoxide, die Vorläufer der Fettsäurefragmente, wurden in freier Form und in komplexen Lipiden verestert analysiert. Unter basalen Bedingungen liegt sowohl bei den freien, als auch bei den veresterten Hydroxyfettsäuren ein fast komplett Singulett Sauerstoff abhängiger Oxidationsmechanismus vor. Drei Galactolipid Hauptspezies (Monogalactosyldiacylglycerol (MGDG)-18:3-16:3, Digalactosyldiacylglycerol (DGDG)-18:3-18:3 und DGDG-18:3-16:3) sind hoch oxidiert (5 bis 9 Mol-%, relativ zur jeweiligen Vorstufe). MGDG-18:3-18:3, ebenso wie Phosphatidylglycerol-, Phosphatidylinositol- und Triacylglycerol-Hydroxyfettsäurespezies liegen basal nur schwach oxidiert vor (< 2 Mol-%). Nach Infektion mit dem Pathogen P. syringae kommt es zu einer massiven Lipid Biosynthese und Oxidation durch die 13-Lipoxygenase LOX2, Singulett Sauerstoff und freie Radikale. Der Oxidationsgrad der Hydroxyfettsäuren in den Galactolipiden ändert sich kaum. Innerhalb der Triacylglycerole kommt es zu einem großen Anstieg der oxidierten Spezies (auf 12 bis 38 Mol-%). Die Oxidation und Fragmentierung der Fettsäuren in den Galactolipiden unter basalen Bedingungen und induziert durch die Pathogenbehandlung, stellen einen wichtigen biochemischen Prozess dar, auf dem PIM und AZA entstehen.
Blumeria graminis, the obligate biotrophic grass powdery mildew, is a highly pathogenic fungus capable of inflicting foliar diseases and of causing severe yield losses. There is asexual and sexual propagation in the life cycle of B. graminis. In the epidemiological processes of this pathogen, both types of spores - asexual conidia and sexual ascospores – are crucial.
Conidia of B. graminis are demonstrated to perceive cuticular very-long-chain aldehydes as molecular signal substances notably promoting germination and differentiation of the infection structure (the appressorium) – the prepenetration processes – in a concentration- and chain-length-dependent manner. Conidial germination and appressorium formation are known to be dramatically impeded by the presence of free water on the host surface. However, sexually formed ascospores are reported to easily germinate immersed in water. There are abundant assays on conidial prepenetration processes. However, with respect to the stimulating effects of very-long-chain aldehydes and to the influence of the presence of free water, ascosporic prepenetration processes are still obscure.
In order to study the effects of very-long-chain aldehydes on the ascosporic prepenetration processes of wheat powdery mildew fungus B. graminis f. sp. tritici, Formvar®-based in vitro systems were applied to exclude the secondary host effects (such as host resistance) and to reproducibly provide homogeneous hydrophobic substratum surfaces. By the presence of even-numbered very-long-chain aldehydes (C22 - C30), the appressorium formation of the ascospores was notably triggered in a chain-length dependent manner. N-octacosanal (C28) was the most inducing aldehyde tested. Unlike conidia, ascospores could easily differentiate immersed in water and showed a more variable differentiation pattern even with a single germ tube differentiating an appressorium.
To evaluate the alternative management against barley powdery mildew fungus Blumeria graminis f. sp. hordei, the suppressing effects of UV-C irradiation on the developmental processes of conidia on artificial surfaces (in vitro) and on host leaf surfaces (in vivo) were assayed. In vitro and in vivo, a single dose of 100 J m-2 UV-C was adequate to decrease conidial germination to < 20 % and to reduce appressorium formation to values < 5 %. UV-C irradiation negatively affected colony pustule size and vegetative propagation. Under photoperiodic conditions of 2h light/16h dark, 6h dark/12h light or 6h dark/18h light, UV-C-treated conidia showed photoreactivation (photo-recovery). White light-mediated photoreactivation was most effective immediately after UV-C irradiation, suggesting that a prolonged phase of darkness after UV-C application increased the efficacy of management against B. graminis. UV-C irradiation increased transcript levels of three putative photolyase genes in B. graminis, indicating those were probably involved in photoreactivation processes. However, mere white light or blue light (wavelength peak, 475 nm) could not induce the up-regulation of these genes.
To determine whether visible light directly impacted the prepenetration and penetration processes of this powdery mildew pathogen, conidia of Blumeria graminis f. sp. hordei and Blumeria graminis f. sp. tritici were inoculated onto artificial surfaces and on host leaf surfaces. Samples were analyzed after incubation periods under light conditions (white light intensity and spectral quality). Increasing white light intensities directly impaired conidial prepenetration processes in vitro but not in vivo. Applying an agar layer under the wax membrane compensated for conidial water loss as a consequence of high white light irradiation. Light stimulated in vitro and in vivo the appressorium elongation of B. graminis in a wavelength-dependent manner. Red light was more effective to trigger the elongation of appressorium than blue light or green light assayed.
Taken together, the findings of this study demonstrate that 1) a host surface recognition principle based on cuticular very-long-chain aldehydes is a common feature of B. graminis f. sp. tritici ascospores and conidia; 2) the transcriptional changes of three putative photolyase genes in B. graminis are mediated in a UV-C-dependent manner; 3) light directly affected the (pre)penetration processes of B. graminis.
Salinity stress tolerance in durum wheat is strongly associated with a plant's ability to control Na\(^+\) delivery to the shoot. Two loci, termed Nax1 and Nax2, were recently identified as being critical for this process and the sodium transporters HKT1;4 and HKT1; 5 were identified as the respective candidate genes. These transporters retrieve Na\(^+\) from the xylem, thus limiting the rates of Na\(^+\) transport from the root to the shoot. In this work, we show that the Nax loci also affect activity and expression levels of the SOS1-like Na\(^+\)/H\(^+\) exchanger in both root cortical and stelar tissues. Net Na\(^+\) efflux measured in isolated steles from salt-treated plants, using the non-invasive ion flux measuring MIFE technique, decreased in the sequence: Tamaroi (parental line)>Nax1=Nax2>Nax1:Nax2 lines. This efflux was sensitive to amiloride (a known inhibitor of the Na\(^+\)/H\(^+\) exchanger) and was mirrored by net H\(^+\) flux changes. TdSOS1 relative transcript levels were 6-10-fold lower in Nax lines compared with Tamaroi. Thus, it appears that Nax loci confer two highly complementary mechanisms, both of which contribute towards reducing the xylem Na\(^+\) content. One enhances the retrieval of Na\(^+\) back into the root stele via HKT1;4 or HKT1;5, whilst the other reduces the rate of Na\(^+\) loading into the xylem via SOS1. It is suggested that such duality plays an important adaptive role with greater versatility for responding to a changing environment and controlling Na\(^+\) delivery to the shoot.
Optogenetics was developed in the field of neuroscience and is most commonly using light-sensitive rhodopsins to control the neural activities. Lately, we have expanded this technique into plant science by co-expression of a chloroplast-targeted β-carotene dioxygenase and an improved anion channelrhodopsin GtACR1 from the green alga Guillardia theta. The growth of Nicotiana tabacum pollen tube can then be manipulated by localized green light illumination. To extend the application of analogous optogenetic tools in the pollen tube system, we engineered another two ACRs, GtACR2, and ZipACR, which have different action spectra, light sensitivity and kinetic features, and characterized them in Xenopus laevis oocytes, Nicotiana benthamiana leaves and N. tabacum pollen tubes. We found that the similar molecular engineering method used to improve GtACR1 also enhanced GtACR2 and ZipACR performance in Xenopus laevis oocytes. The ZipACR1 performed in N. benthamiana mesophyll cells and N. tabacum pollen tubes with faster kinetics and reduced light sensitivity, allowing for optogenetic control of anion fluxes with better temporal resolution. The reduced light sensitivity would potentially facilitate future application in plants, grown under low ambient white light, combined with an optogenetic manipulation triggered by stronger green light.
The discovery, heterologous expression, and characterization of channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2) – a light-sensitive cation channel found in the green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii – led to the success of optogenetics as a powerful technology, first in neuroscience. ChR2 was employed to induce action potentials by blue light in genetically modified nerve cells. In optogenetics, exogenous photoreceptors are expressed in cells to manipulate cellular activity. These photoreceptors were in the beginning mainly microbial opsins. During nearly two decades, many microbial opsins and their mutants were explored for their application in neuroscience. Until now, however, the application of optogenetics to plant studies is limited to very few reports. Several optogenetic strategies for plant research were demonstrated, in which most attempts are based on non-opsin optogenetic tools. Opsins need retinal (vitamin A) as a cofactor to generate the functional protein, the rhodopsin. As most animals have eyes that contain animal rhodopsins, they also have the enzyme - a 15, 15'-Dioxygenase - for retinal production from food-supplied provitamin A (beta-carotene). However, higher plants lack a similar enzyme, making it difficult to express functional rhodopsins successfully in plants. But plant chloroplasts contain plenty of beta-carotene. I introduced a gene, coding for a 15, 15'-Dioxygenase with a chloroplast target peptide, to tobacco plants. This enzyme converts a molecule of β-carotene into two of all-trans-retinal. After expressing this enzyme in plants, the concentration of all-trans-retinal was increased greatly. The increased retinal concentration led to increased expression of several microbial opsins, tested in model higher plants. Unfortunately, most opsins were observed intracellularly and not in the plasma membrane. To improve their localization in the plasma membrane, some reported signal peptides were fused to the N- or C-terminal end of opsins. Finally, I helped to identify three microbial opsins -- GtACR1 (a light-gated anion channel), ChR2 (a light-gated cation channel), PPR (a light-gated proton pump) which express and work well in the plasma membrane of plants. The transgene plants were grown under red light to prevent activation of the expressed opsins. Upon illumination with blue or green light, the activation of these opsins then induced the expected change of the membrane potential, dramatically changing the phenotype of plants with activated rhodopsins.
This study is the first which shows the potential of microbial opsins for optogenetic research in higher plants, using the ubq10 promoter for ubiquitous expression. I expect this to be just the beginning, as many different opsins and tissue-specific promoters for selective expression now can be tested for their usefulness. It is further to be expected that the here established method will help investigators to exploit more optogenetic tools and explore the secrets, kept in the plant kingdom.
Polygonum cuspidatum (Japanese knotweed, also known as Huzhang in Chinese), a plant that produces bioactive components such as stilbenes and quinones, has long been recognized as important in traditional Chinese herbal medicine. To better understand the biological features of this plant and to gain genetic insight into the biosynthesis of its natural products, we assembled a draft genome of P. cuspidatum using Illumina sequencing technology. The draft genome is ca. 2.56 Gb long, with 71.54% of the genome annotated as transposable elements. Integrated gene prediction suggested that the P. cuspidatum genome encodes 55,075 functional genes, including 6,776 gene families that are conserved in the five eudicot species examined and 2,386 that are unique to P. cuspidatum. Among the functional genes identified, 4,753 are predicted to encode transcription factors. We traced the gene duplication history of P. cuspidatum and determined that it has undergone two whole-genome duplication events about 65 and 6.6 million years ago. Roots are considered the primary medicinal tissue, and transcriptome analysis identified 2,173 genes that were expressed at higher levels in roots compared to aboveground tissues. Detailed phylogenetic analysis demonstrated expansion of the gene family encoding stilbene synthase and chalcone synthase enzymes in the phenylpropanoid metabolic pathway, which is associated with the biosynthesis of resveratrol, a pharmacologically important stilbene. Analysis of the draft genome identified 7 abscisic acid and water deficit stress-induced protein-coding genes and 14 cysteine-rich transmembrane module genes predicted to be involved in stress responses. The draft de novo genome assembly produced in this study represents a valuable resource for the molecular characterization of medicinal compounds in P. cuspidatum, the improvement of this important medicinal plant, and the exploration of its abiotic stress resistance.
Virulent Agrobacterium tumefaciens strains integrate their T-DNA into the plant genome where the encoded agrobacterial oncogenes are expressed and cause crown gall disease. Essential for crown gall development are IaaH (indole-3-acetamide hydrolase), IaaM (tryptophan monooxygenase) and Ipt (isopentenyl transferase), which encode enzymes for the biosynthesis of auxin (IaaH, IaaM) and cytokinin (Ipt). Although these oncogenes are well studied as the tumor-inducing principle, nothing is known about the regulation of oncogene expression in plant cells. Our studies show that the intergenic regions (IGRs) between the coding sequences (CDS) of the three oncogenes function as promoters in plant cells. These promoters possess a eukaryotic sequence organization and cis-regulatory elements for the binding of plant transcription factors. WRKY18, WRKY40, WRKY60 and ARF5 were identified as activators of the Ipt promoter whereas IaaH and IaaM is constitutively expressed and no transcription factor further activates their promoters. Consistent with these results, the wrky triple mutant plants in particular, develops smaller crown galls than wild-type and exhibits a reduced Ipt transcription, despite the presence of an intact ARF5 gene. WRKY40 and WRKY60 gene expression is induced by A. tumefaciens within a few hours whereas the ARF5 gene is transcribed later during crown gall development. The WRKY proteins interact with ARF5 in the plant nucleus, but only WRKY40 together with ARF5 synergistically boosts the activation of the Ipt promoter in an auxin-dependent manner. From our data, we propose that A. tumefaciens initially induces WRKY40 gene expression as a pathogen defense response of the host cell. The WRKY protein is recruited to induce Ipt expression, which initiates cytokinin-dependent host cell division. With increasing auxin levels triggered by ubiquitous expression of IaaH and IaaM, ARF5 is activated and interacts with WRKY40 to potentiate Ipt expression and balance cytokinin and auxin levels for further cell proliferation.
Virulent Agrobacterium tumefaciens strains transfer and integrate a DNA region of the tumor-inducing (Ti) plasmid, the T-DNA, into the plant genome and thereby cause crown gall disease. The most essential genes required for crown gall development are the T-DNA-encoded oncogenes, IaaH (indole-3-acetamide hydrolase), IaaM (tryptophan monooxygenase) for auxin, and Ipt (isopentenyl transferase) for cytokinin biosynthesis. When these oncogenes are expressed in the host cell, the levels of auxin and cytokinin increase and cause cell proliferation. The aim of this study was to unravel the molecular mechanisms, which regulate expression of the agrobacterial oncogenes in plant cells. Transcripts of the three oncogenes were expressed in Arabidopsis thaliana crown galls induced by A. tumefaciens strain C58 and the intergenic regions (IGRs) between their coding sequences (CDS) were proven to have promoter activity in plant cells. These promoters possess eukaryotic sequence structures and contain cis-regulatory elements for the binding of plant transcription factors. The high-throughput protoplast transactivation (PTA) system was used and identified the Arabidopsis thaliana transcription factors WRKY18, WRKY40, WRKY60 and ARF5 to activate the Ipt oncogene promoter. No transcription factor promoted the activity of the IaaH and IaaM promoters, despite the fact that the sequences contained binding elements for type B ARR transcription factors. Likewise, the treatment of Arabidopsis mesophyll protoplasts with cytokinin (trans-zeatin) and auxin (1-NAA) exerted no positive effect on IaaH and IaaM promoter activity. In contrast, the Ipt promoter strongly responded to a treatment with auxin and only modestly to cytokinin. The three Arabidopsis WRKYs play a role in crown gall development as the wrky mutants developed smaller crown galls than wild-type plants. The WRKY40 and WRKY60 genes responded very quickly to pathogen infection, two and four hours post infection, respectively. Transcription of the WRKY18 gene was induced upon buffer infiltration, which implicates a response to wounding. The three WRKY proteins interacted with ARF5 and with each other in the plant nucleus, but only WRKY40 together with ARF5 increased activation of the Ipt promoter. Moreover, ARF5 activated the Ipt promoter in an auxin-dependent manner. The severe developmental phenotype of the arf5 mutant prevented studies on crown gall development, nevertheless, the reduced crown gall growth on the transport inhibitor response 1 (TIR1) tir1 mutant, lacking the auxin sensor, suggested that auxin signaling is required for optimal crown gall development. In conclusion, A. tumefaciens recruits the pathogen defense related WRKY40 pathway to activate Ipt expression in T-DNA-transformed plant cells. IaaH and IaaM gene expression seems not to be controlled by transcriptional activators, but the increasing auxin levels are signaled via ARF5. The auxin-depended activation of ARF5 boosts expression of the Ipt gene in combination with WRKY40 to increase cytokinin levels and induce crown gall development.
In order to test the effects of environmental factors on different characteristics of plant leaf waxes, barley plants (Hordeum vulgare) were abiotically stress treated (exposure to darkness, heavy metal, high salt concentrations and drought), and biotically stressed by the infection with powdery mildew (Blumeria graminis f.sp. hordei; Bgh). Different wax parameters like amount, chemical composition, and micromorphology of epicuticular wax crystals, were investigated. Etiolated leaves of barley showed distinctly reduced wax amounts and modifications in their relative composition. The alterations of these wax parameters might be a result of a developmental delay, which could have been caused by a decreased availability of energy for cellular processes, due to lack of light. Cadmium exposure led to a 1.5-fold increase of wax amount, while chemical composition was unaffected. In drought- and salt-stressed plants, all investigated leaf wax parameters remained unaltered. In each of the abiotic treatments, the microstructure of epicuticular wax crystals, formed as typical platelets, was not modified. Even after 6d infection with powdery mildew (Bgh), neither locally nor systemically enforced modifications of wax features were revealed.
The analyzed leave surfaces, resulting from these four abiotic and the biotic treatment (phenotypic approach), were compared to altered leaf surfaces’ characteristics of 18 analyzed eceriferum (cer-) wax mutants (genotypic approach). Within the screening, 5 mutants were selected which distinctly differed from the wild-type in wax amount, portions of epi- and intracuticular wax fraction, relative chemical composition, crystal morphology, and surface wettability (hydrophobicity).
Apart from quantitative and qualitative effects on the leaf waxes, environmentally enforced modifications in cuticular waxes might be reflected in molecular processes of wax biogenesis. Therefore, a barley wax-microarray was established. 254 genes were selected, which are putatively involved in processes of de novo fatty acid biosynthesis, fatty acid elongation, and modification, and which are supposed to take part in lipid-trafficking between cell compartments, and transport of wax components to the outer cell surface. The regulations within the expression pattern evoked by the respective treatments were correlated with the corresponding analytical wax data, and the observed molecular effects of a 3d powdery mildew infection were compared with succeeding fungal morphogenesis. Etiolation and cadmium exposition pointed to transcriptional modifications in the de novo fatty acid synthesis, and in the screened, transport-related mechanisms, which correlate with respective alterations in surface wax characteristics. Moderate changes in the gene expression pattern, evoked by drought- and salinity-stress, might give hints for evolved adaptations in barley to such common habitat stresses. Theinvasion of powdery mildew into the epidermal host cells was reflected in the regulation of several genes. Beside other functions, these genes take part in pathogen defense, and intracellular component transport, or they encode transcription factors. The different modifications within the molecular responses evoked by the investigated abiotic treatments, and the effects of powdery mildew infection representing a biotic stressor, were compared between the different treatments.
In order to test the potential impact of different wax parameters on Bgh, conidia germination and differentiation was comparably investigated on leaf surfaces of abiotically stressed wild-type and cer-mutants, isolated cuticles, and further artificial surfaces. The rates of conidial development were similar on each of the leaf surfaces resulting from the abiotic treatments, while a significant reduction of the germination and differentiation success was revealed for the wax mutant cer-yp.949. Compared to the wild-type, developmental rates on isolated cuticles and extracted leaf waxes of the mutant cer-yp.949 indicated a modified embedding of cuticular waxes, and a possibly changed three-dimensional structure of the cer-yp.949 cuticle, which might explain the reduced conidial developmental rates on leaf surfaces of this particular mutant.
Experiments with Bgh conidia on mechanically de-waxed leaf surfaces (selective mechanical removal of the epicuticular leaf waxes with glue-like gum arabic, followed by an extraction of the intracuticular wax portion with chloroform) demonstrated the importance of the wax coverage for the germination and differentiation of the fungal conidia. On all dewaxed leaf surfaces, except those of cer-yp.949, the differentiation success of the germlings was significantly reduced, by about 20% (“wax-effect”). This result was verified through an artificial system with increased conidia developmental rates on glass slides covered with extracted leaf waxes. Further comparative tests with the major components of barley leaf wax, hexacosanol and hexacosanal, showed that the germination and differentiation of powdery mildew conidia not only depends on the different chemistry, but is also influenced by the respective surface hydrophobicity. Compared to hexacosanol, on hexacosanal coated glass surfaces, higher germination and differentiation rates were achieved, which correlated with increased levels of surface hydrophobicity. Developmental rates of conidia on hydrophobic foils demonstrated that hydrophobicity, as a sole surface factor, may stimulate the conidial germination and differentiation processes. Moreover, the survival of conidia on artificial surfaces is determined by additional surface derived factors, e.g. the availability of water, and a pervadable matrix.