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The modulation of an animal’s behavior through external sensory stimuli, previous experience and its internal state is crucial to survive in a constantly changing environment. In most insects, octopamine (OA) and its precursor tyramine (TA) modulate a variety of physiological processes and behaviors by shifting the organism from a relaxed or dormant condition to a responsive, excited and alerted state. Even though OA/TA neurons of the central brain are described on single cell level in Drosophila melanogaster, the periphery was largely omitted from anatomical studies. Given that OA/TA is involved in behaviors like feeding, flying and locomotion, which highly depend on a variety of peripheral organs, it is necessary to study the peripheral connections of these neurons to get a complete picture of the OA/TA circuitry. We here describe the anatomy of this aminergic system in relation to peripheral tissues of the entire fly. OA/TA neurons arborize onto skeletal muscles all over the body and innervate reproductive organs, the heart, the corpora allata, and sensory organs in the antennae, legs, wings and halteres underlining their relevance in modulating complex behaviors.
Attraction to ethanol is common in both flies and humans, but the neuromodulatory mechanisms underlying this innate attraction are not well understood. Here, we dissect the function of the key regulator of serotonin signaling—the serotonin transporter–in innate olfactory attraction to ethanol in Drosophila melanogaster. We generated a mutated version of the serotonin transporter that prolongs serotonin signaling in the synaptic cleft and is targeted via the Gal4 system to different sets of serotonergic neurons. We identified four serotonergic neurons that inhibit the olfactory attraction to ethanol and two additional neurons that counteract this inhibition by strengthening olfactory information. Our results reveal that compensation can occur on the circuit level and that serotonin has a bidirectional function in modulating the innate attraction to ethanol. Given the evolutionarily conserved nature of the serotonin transporter and serotonin, the bidirectional serotonergic mechanisms delineate a basic principle for how random behavior is switched into targeted approach behavior.
Feeding and sleep are fundamental behaviours with significant interconnections and cross-modulations. The circadian system and peptidergic signals are important components of this modulation, but still little is known about the mechanisms and networks by which they interact to regulate feeding and sleep. We show that specific thermogenetic activation of peptidergic Allatostatin A (AstA)-expressing PLP neurons and enteroendocrine cells reduces feeding and promotes sleep in the fruit fly Drosophila. The effects of AstA cell activation are mediated by AstA peptides with receptors homolog to galanin receptors subserving similar and apparently conserved functions in vertebrates. We further identify the PLP neurons as a downstream target of the neuropeptide pigment-dispersing factor (PDF), an output factor of the circadian clock. PLP neurons are contacted by PDF-expressing clock neurons, and express a functional PDF receptor demonstrated by cAMP imaging. Silencing of AstA signalling and continuous input to AstA cells by tethered PDF changes the sleep/activity ratio in opposite directions but does not affect rhythmicity. Taken together, our results suggest that pleiotropic AstA signalling by a distinct neuronal and enteroendocrine AstA cell subset adapts the fly to a digestive energy-saving state which can be modulated by PDF.
In order to select the appropriate behavior, it is important to choose the right behavior at the right time out of many options. It still remains unclear nowadays how exactly this is managed. To address this question, I expose flies (Drosophila melanogaster) to uncontrollable stress to study their behavior under restrictive circumstances by using the so-called shock box. Exposing animals to uncontrollable stress may have an impact on subsequent behavior and can last for some time. The animal learns that whatever it does, it cannot change the situation and therefore can develop something called learned helplessness. The term was first conceptualized by two American psychologists Maier and Seligman (1967), who discovered this phenomenon while doing experiments with dogs. They found out that dogs which are exposed to inescapable stress, later fail in a learning task (‘shuttle box’).
In this work the walking patterns of three different types of experimental flies, walking in a small dark chamber, were evaluated. Using the triadic design (Seligman and Maier, 1967), flies were either exposed to electric shock randomly (yoked), could turn it off by being active (master) or did not receive punishment at all (control). Master flies were shocked whenever they sat for more than 0.9 seconds. At the same time yoked flies received a shock as well independent of what they were doing, to ensure the same amount of shocks received and to create random punishment pattern for the yoked group. With this so-called no-idleness paradigm flies were conditioned either 10 minutes, which resulted in a short (3 minutes) after-effect, or 20 minutes that turned out to be more stable (10 minutes).
In a second part, the behavior during the 20 minute conditioning and a 10 minutes post-test was described in detail. Female flies of the yoked group developed lower activity levels, longer pauses and walked more slowly than master and control flies during conditioning. In the time after the shocks while still in the box, the yoked flies also reduced the frequency and duration of walking bouts as well as their walking speed. Additionally, they took more time to resume walking after the onset of an electric shock than master flies (escape latency) and turned out to make less pauses lasting between 1-1.5 seconds which supports the finding concerning the escape latency.
Male flies, tested under the same conditions, showed a slightly weaker after-effect regarding the difference between master and yoked during conditioning and post-test when compared to female flies.
When comparing the 20 minutes conditioning with subsequent 10 minutes test in the heat and the shock box in parallel, one finds the same effect: Flies which do not have control over the shocks, lower their activity, make less but longer pauses and walk more slowly than their respective master flies. Despite the similar effect of heat and shock on the flies, some differences between the devices occurred, which can partly be explained by different humidity conditions as well as by different surfaces within the chambers.
When the control over the shocks is given back to the yoked flies, it takes them about seven minutes to realize it. One could also show that dopamine levels in the brain were reduced in comparison to flies which did not receive shocks. Yoked flies also were impaired in a place learning task (place learning) and their reaction to light (exit from the box towards the light) directly after conditioning.
After characterizing the walking behavior in the chambers, the study deals with the question whether the effects observed in the chambers transfer to different environments.
In free walk they only differed from flies which did not receive electric shocks and no effect of uncontrollability was transferred to courtship behavior. Handling as the cause could be excluded. Since handling could be exclude to be the cause of losing the effect, I assumed that the behavior shown in the boxes are context depend.
Not only were the after-effects of inescapable shock subject of the current research also the impact of the rearing situation on the response to electric shock was investigated in the present study. Flies which grew up in a single-reared situation turned out to be less affected by inescapable stress in both sexes.
In the next part, the first steps to unravel the neuronal underpinning were taken. A mutant – fumin – which is defective in the dopamine re-uptake transporter showed less reaction to inescapable foot shocks, while a mutant for the gene which encodes an adenylate cyclase (rutabaga2080) resulted in a good score during conditioning, but showed no stable after-effect. Downregulating the expression of the adenylate cyclase gene (rutabaga) in different parts of the mushroom bodies showed, that rutabaga is necessary in the α’β’-lobes for expressing the differences between master and yoked flies in the no-idleness paradigm. The study further confirmed previous findings, that rutabaga is needed in operant but not in classical conditioning.
As a result, the study could show that not the stimulus itself causes the state of uncontrollability but the fact that the fly learned that it was not in control of the stimulus. This state turned out to be context and time dependent.
Gegenstand dieser Arbeit ist das Drosophila melanogaster Protein DPAK3, ein Vertreter der hochkonservierten Familie der p21-aktivierten Kinasen (PAK). DPAK3 und seine Homologen aus anderen Insektenarten und C. elegans können aufgrund eines Vergleichs der Proteinsequenz und struktureller Merkmale in eine eigenen Untergruppe 1* innerhalb der Gruppe 1 der PAK-Proteine eingeordnet werden. Das Genom von Drosophila kodiert noch für zwei weitere PAK-Proteine, das zur Gruppe 1 gehörende DPAK1 und das Gruppe 2 PAK-Protein Mbt. Wie die klassischen Gruppe 1 PAK-Proteine bildet DPAK3 im inaktiven Zustand Dimere. DPAK3 interagiert mit den GTP-gebundenen Formen der RhoGTPasen Rac1, Rac2 und Cdc42. Durch die Bindung dieser Proteine geht DPAK3 aus dem dimeren in den monomeren Zustand über und seine Kinaseaktivität wird durch diese Bindung gesteigert. DPAK3 ist für die Ausbildung der korrekten Morphologie kultivierter Drosophila Zellen erforderlich und beeinflußt die Regulation des Aktinzytoskeletts. Weiterhin konnte CK2beta, die regulatorische Untereinheit der Casein Kinase 2, als neuer Regulator von p21-aktivierten Kinasen identifiziert werden. Das Genom von Drosophila besitzt drei Transkriptionseinheiten, die für CK2beta', CK2betatestes und fünf verschiedene Isoformen von CK2beta kodieren. Eine vergleichende Analyse zeigt, daß alle CK2beta-Proteine mit DPAK1, DPAK3 und in geringerem Maß auch mit Mbt interagieren und in der Lage sind, die Aktivität der PAK-Proteine in vitro zu hemmen. Die Bindung von CK2beta an DPAK3 wird, wie bei allen anderen Serin- / Threoninkinasen, die bisher als Interaktionspartner von CK2beta identifiziert wurden, über die Kinasedomäne von DPAK3 vermittelt. Die Bildung des aus zwei katalytischen CK2a und zwei CK2beta Untereinheiten bestehenden CK2-Holoenzyms hängt von der Fähigkeit von CK2beta ab, Dimere zu bilden. Es konnte gezeigt werden, daß die Bildung eines b-b Dimers für die Interaktion mit und Regulation von DPAK3 nicht erforderlich ist. In vivo wurden die bisher bekannten Dpak3 Allele untersucht, wobei kein gesichertes Nullallel identifiziert werden konnte. Durch enzymatisch katalysierte Rekombination wurde eine neue Deletion hergestellt, die das komplette Leseraster von Dpak3 entfernt. Mit Hilfe von genetischen Mosaiken wurde die Rolle von DPAK3 in der Augenentwicklung untersucht. Durch den Verlust der Genfunktion von Dpak3 wird die Ausbildung der korrekten Struktur der Komplexaugen nur leicht beeinträchtigt. Bei der Analyse einer Dpak1 Mutante wurde dasselbe Ergebnis erzielt. Gleichzeitiger Verlust der Genfunktion von Dpak1 und Dpak3 hingegen führt zu massiven strukturellen Defekten. DPAK1 und DPAK3 erfüllen somit zumindest teilweise redundante Funktionen in der Augenentwicklung. Es wird Gegenstand zukünftiger Studien sein müssen, die gemeinsamen und getrennten Funktionen dieser PAK-Proteine in Drosophila aufzuklären.
Inhaltsübersicht zum Schwerpunktthema: - Neurobiologie, Ökologie und Evolution des Verhaltens - "Unsere Forschungen werden international sehr stark beachtet" - Kleine Gehirne - großer Fortschritt - Fruchtfliegen verhelfen Laufrobotern zu sicherem Tritt - Mehr als eine Nummer aus dem Flohzirkus - DNA-Fingerabdruck weist Sklaverei bei Ameisen nach u. a.
Since Channelrhodopsins has been described first and introduced successfully in freely moving animals (Nagel et al., 2003 and 2005), tremendous impact has been made in this interesting field of neuroscience. Subsequently, many different optogenetic tools have been described and used to address long-lasting scientific issues. Furthermore, beside the ‘classical’ Channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2), basically a cation-selective ion channel, also altered ChR2 descendants, anion selective channels and light-sensitive metabotropic proteins have expanded the optogenetic toolbox. However, in spite of this variety of different tools most researches still pick Channelrhodopsin-2 for their optogenetic approaches due to its well-known kinetics. In this thesis, an improved Channelrhodopsin, Channelrhodopsin2-XXM (ChR2XXM), is described, which might become an useful tool to provide ambitious neuroscientific approaches by dint of its characteristics. Here, ChR2XXM was chosen to investigate the functional consequences of Drosophila larvae lacking latrophilin in their chordotonal organs. Finally, the functionality of GtACR, was checked at the Drosophila NMJ. For a in-depth characterisation, electrophysiology along with behavioural setups was employed. In detail, ChR2XXM was found to have a better cellular expression pattern, high spatiotemporal precision, substantial increased light sensitivity and improved affinity to its chromophore retinal, as compared to ChR2. Employing ChR2XXM, effects of latrophilin (dCIRL) on signal transmission in the chordotonal organ could be clarified with a minimum of side effects, e.g. possible heat response of the chordotonal organ, due to high light sensitivity. Moreover, optogenetic activation of the chordotonal organ, in vivo, led to behavioural changes. Additionally, GtACR1 was found to be effective to inhibit motoneuronal excitation but is accompanied by unexpected side effects. These results demonstrate that further improvement and research of optogenetic tools is highly valuable and required to enable researchers to choose the best fitting optogenetic tool to address their scientific questions.
The correct regulation of cell growth and proliferation is essential during normal animal development. Myc proteins function as transcription factors, being involved in the con-trol of many growth- and proliferation-associated genes and deregulation of Myc is one of the main driving factors of human malignancies.
The first part of this thesis focuses on the identification of directly regulated Myc target genes in Drosophila melanogaster, by combining ChIPseq and RNAseq approaches. The analysis results in a core set of Myc target genes of less than 300 genes which are mainly involved in ribosome biogenesis. Among these genes we identify a novel class of Myc targets, the non-coding small nucleolar RNAs (snoRNAs). In vivo studies show that loss of snoRNAs not only impairs growth during normal development, but that overexpression of several snoRNAs can also enhance tumor development in a neu-ronal tumor model. Together the data show that Myc acts as a master regulator of ribo-some biogenesis and that Myc’s transforming effects in tumor development are at least partially mediated by the snoRNAs.
In the second part of the thesis, the interaction of Myc and the Zf-protein Chinmo is described. Co-immunoprecipitations of the two proteins performed under endogenous and exogenous conditions show that they interact physically and that neither the two Zf-domains nor the BTB/POZ-domain of Chinmo are important for this interaction. Fur-thermore ChIP experiments and Myc dependent luciferase assays show that Chinmo and Myc share common target genes, and that Chinmo is presumably also involved in their regulation. While the exact way of how Myc and Chinmo genetically interact with each other still has to be investigated, we show that their interaction is important in a tumor model. Overexpression of the tumor-suppressors Ras and Chinmo leads to tu-mor formation in Drosophila larvae, which is drastically impaired upon loss of Myc.
In einer vorangegangenen Arbeit konnte eine hypomorphe Mutation innerhalb des Genlokus einer putativen Serin-/Threonin-Kinase als Auslöser der Aggregatbildung des Aktive-Zone- Proteins Bruchpilot in larvalen Motoneuronaxonen identifiziert werden (Nieratschker, 2004). Aufgrund der Homologien dieser Kinase zu SR-Proteinkinasen wurde der Name Serin- /Threonin-Proteinkinase 3 (SRPK3) vorgeschlagen. Laut ursprünglicher Annotation der „Flybase“ (http://flybase.bio.indiana.edu) codiert der Genlokus der Srpk3, der auf dem linken Arm des dritten Chromosoms innerhalb der Region 79D4 lokalisiert ist und sich über ca. 10,3 kb erstreckt, für zwei Transkripte (Srpk3-RC und Srpk3-RB). Diese beiden Transkripte haben unterschiedliche Transkriptions- und Translationsstartpunkte und unterscheiden sich in ihrem ersten kodierenden Exon, ab dem vierten Exon sind sie allerdings identisch. Das Srpk3-RCTranskript umfasst ca. 4,2 kb, das Srpk3-RB-Transkript ca. 3,8 kb. Die von diesen Transkripten kodierten Proteine bestehen aus 816 (Srpk3-RC) bzw. 749 (Srpk3-RB) Aminosäuren. Diese beiden ursprünglich annotierten Transkripte konnten durch RT-PCR-Experimente bestätigt werden. Dabei wurde auch ein zusätzliches, alternativ gespleißtes Exon von 159 bp entdeckt, das beiden Transkripten zugeordnet werden kann. Somit codiert der Srpk3-Genlokus für mindestens vier Transkripte, die Transkripte der RC/RF-Transkriptgruppe mit (Srpk3-RF) und ohne (Srpk3-RC) das alternativ gespleißte Exon und die Transkripte der RB/RETranskriptgruppe mit (Srpk3-RE) und ohne (Srpk3-RB) das alternativ gespleißte Exon. Die Existenz eines weiteren Transkriptes Srpk3-RD, die in der aktuellen Version der „Flybase“ annotiert ist, konnte durch RT-PCR-Experimente nicht nachgewiesen werden. Zu Beginn dieser Arbeit lag eine hypomorphe Mutante für die SRPK3 schon vor (Srpk3P1; Eberle, 1995). Diese Linie trägt eine P-Elementinsertion innerhalb des ersten Exons der RC/RF-Transkriptgruppe, die das Leseraster dieser Transkriptgruppe zerstört, so dass in dieser Linie nur die RB/RE-Transkriptgruppe gebildet werden kann. Wie bereits erwähnt, konnte diese Mutation in vorangegangenen Arbeiten bereits als der Auslöser der Aggregatbildung des Bruchpilot-Proteins in larvalen Motoneuronaxone, sowie einiger Verhaltensdefekte identifiziert werden (Nieratschker, 2004; Bock 2006). Diese Verhaltensdefekte ähneln stark denen, die durch einen knock-down der Bruchpilot-Expression mittels RNAi ausgelöst werden (Wagh et al., 2006; Bock, 2006), was auf eine Interaktion beider Proteine schließen lässt. Um nun den Beweis führen zu können, dass tatsächlich diese Mutation die beobachteten Phänotypen verursacht, wurden Rettungsversuche durchgeführt. Die Srpk3-RF-cDNA war dabei in der Lage die durch die hypomorphe Mutation der SRPK3 verursachten Phänotypen vollständig, oder zumindest teilweise zu retten (vgl. auch Bock, 2006; Bloch, 2007). Damit konnte belegt werden, dass die hypomorphe Mutation der SRPK3 tatsächlich die in der Mutante Srpk3P1 beobachteten Phänotypen verursacht. Um die durch in situ Hybridisierung erhaltenen Daten zur Lokalisation der SRPK3 im larvalen Gehirn (Nieratschker, 2004) bestätigen, sowie weitere Daten erhalten zu können, wurden Isoform-spezifische Antisera gegen die SRPK3 generiert. Diese Antiseren sind in der Lage überexprimiertes Protein zu detektieren (Bloch, 2007), allerdings ist es mit diesen Antiseren nicht möglich die SRPK3 in wildtypischen Präparaten nachzuweisen. Weitere Daten zur Lokalisation der SRPK3, die durch die Verwendung eines SRPK3-eGFPFusionsproteins erhalten wurden, zeigten, dass eine der ektopisch überexprimierten SRPK3- Isoformen mit Bruchpilot an der Aktiven Zone kolokalisiert. Dieses Ergebnis, in Verbindung mit den durch die Mutation der SRPK3 verursachten Bruchpilot-Aggregaten in larvalen Motoneuronaxonen und den Verhaltensdefekten, gibt Hinweise auf eine mögliche direkte Interaktion beider Proteine….
Cryptochromes (CRYs) are a class of flavoproteins that sense blue light. In animals, CRYs are expressed in the eyes and in the clock neurons that control sleep/wake cycles and are implied in the generation and/or entrainment of circadian rhythmicity. Moreover, CRYs are sensing magnetic fields in insects as well as in humans. Here, we show that in the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster CRY plays a light-independent role as “assembling” protein in the rhabdomeres of the compound eyes. CRY interacts with actin and appears to increase light sensitivity of the eyes by keeping the “signalplex” of the phototransduction cascade close to the membrane. By this way, CRY also enhances light-responses of the circadian clock.