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Whereas G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) have been long believed to signal through cyclic AMP exclusively at cell surface, our group has previously shown that GPCRs not only signal at the cell surface but can also continue doing so once internalized together with their ligands, leading to persistent cAMP production. This phenomenon, which we originally described for the thyroid stimulating hormone receptor (TSHR) in thyroid cells, has been observed also for other GPCRs. However, the intracellular compartment(s) responsible for such persistent signaling and its consequences on downstream effectors were insufficiently characterized. The aim of this study was to follow by live-cell imaging the trafficking of internalized TSHRs and other involved signaling proteins as well as to understand the consequences of signaling by internalized TSHRs on the downstream activation of protein kinase A (PKA). cAMP and PKA
activity was measured in real-time in living thyroid cells using FRET-based sensors Epac1-camp and AKAR2 respectively. The results suggest that TSH co-internalizes with its receptor and that the internalized TSH/TSHR complexes traffic retrogradely to the trans-Golgi network (TGN). This study also provides evidence that these internalized TSH/TSHR complexes meet an intracellular pool of Gs proteins in sorting endosomes and in TGN and activate it there, as visualized in real-time using a conformational biosensor nanobody, Nb37. Acute Brefeldin A-induced Golgi collapse hinders the retrograde trafficking of TSH/TSHR complexes, leading to reduced cAMP production and PKA signaling. BFA pretreatment was also able to attenuate CREB phosphorylation suggesting that an intact Golgi/TGN organisation is essential
for an efficient cAMP/PKA signaling by internalized TSH/TSHR complexes. Taken together this data provides evidence that internalized TSH/TSHR complexes meet and activate Gs proteins in sorting endosomes and at the TGN, leading to a local activation of PKA and consequently increased CREB activation. These findings suggest unexpected functions for receptor internalization, with major pathophysiological and pharmacological implications.
G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) form the biggest receptor family that is encoded in the human genome and represent the most druggable target structure for modern therapeutics respectively future drug development. Belonging to aminergic class A GPCRs muscarinic Acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs) are already now of clinical relevance and are also seen as promising future drug targets for treating neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer or Parkinson. The mAChR family consist of five subtypes showing high sequence identity for the endogenous ligand binding region and thus it is challenging until now to selectively activate a single receptor subtype. A well accepted method to study ligand binding, dynamic receptor activation and downstream signaling is the fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) application. Here, there relative distance between two fluorophores in close proximity (<10 nm) can be monitored in a dynamic manner. The perquisite for that is the spectral overlap of the emission spectrum of the first fluorophore with the excitation spectrum of the second fluorophore. By inserting two fluorophores into the molecular receptor structure receptor FRET sensors can serve as a powerful tool to study dynamic receptor pharmacology.
Dualsteric Ligands consist of two different pharmacophoric entities and are regarded as a promising ligand design for future drug development. The orthosteric part interacts with high affinity with the endogenous ligand binding region whereas the allosteric part binds to a different receptor region mostly located in the extracellular vestibule. Both moieties are covalently linked. Dualsteric ligands exhibit a dynamic ligand binding. The dualsteric binding position is characterized by a simultaneous binding of the orthosteric and allosteric moiety to the receptor and thus by receptor activation. In the purely allosteric binding position no receptor activation can be monitored.
In the present work the first receptor FRET sensor for the muscarinic subtype 1 (M1) was generated and characterized. The M1-I3N-CFP sensor showed an unaltered physiological behavior as well as ligand and concentration dependent responses. The sensor was used to characterize different sets of dualsteric ligands concerning their pharmacological properties like receptor activation. It was shown that the hybrids consisting of the synthetic full agonist iperoxo and the positive allosteric modulator of BQCA type is very promising. Furthermore, it was shown for orthosteric as well as dualsteric ligands that the degree of receptor activation is highly dependent on the length of and the chemical properties of the linker moiety. For dualsteric ligands a bell-shaped activation characteristic was reported for the first time, suggesting that there is an optimal linker length for dualsteric ligands. The gained knowledge about hybrid design was then used to generate and characterize the first photo-switchable dualsteric ligand. The resulting hybrids were characterized with the M1-I3N-CFP sensor and were described as photo-inactivatable and dimmable. In addition to the ligand characterization the ligand application methodology was further developed and improved. Thus, a fragment-based screening approach for dualsteric ligands was reported in this study for the first time. With this approach it is possible to investigate dualsteric ligands in greater detail by applying either single ligand fragments alone or in a mixture of building blocks. These studies revealed the insights that the effect of dualsteric ligands on a GPCR can be rebuild by applying the single building blocks simultaneously. The fragment-based screening provides high potential for the molecular understanding of dualsteric ligands and for future screening approaches. Next, a further development of the standard procedure for measuring FRET by sensitized emission was performed. Under normal conditions single cell FRET is measured on glass coverslips. After coating the coverslips surface with a 20 nm thick gold layer an increased FRET efficiency up to 60 % could be reported. This finding was validated in different approaches und in different configurations. This FRET enhancement by plasmonic surfaces was until yet unreported in the literature for physiological systems and make FRET for future projects even more powerful.
Fluorescence microscopy has become one of the most important techniques for the imaging of biological cells and tissue, since the technique allows for selective labeling with fluorescent molecules and is highly suitable for low-light applications down to the single molecule regime. The methodological requirements are well-defined for studying membrane receptors within a highly localized nanometer-thin membrane. For example, G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are an extensively studied class of membrane receptors that represent one of the most important pharmaceutical targets. Ligand binding and GPCR activation dynamics are suspected to take place at the millisecond scale and may even be far faster. Thus, techniques that are fast, selective, and live-cell compatible are required to monitor GPCR dynamics. Fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) and total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy (TIRF-M) are methods of choice to monitor the dynamics of GPCRs selectively within the cell membrane.
Despite the remarkable success of these modalities, there are limitations. Most importantly, inhomogeneous illumination can induce imaging artifacts, rendering spectroscopic evaluation difficult. Background signal due to scattering processes or imperfect labeling can hamper the signal-to-noise, thus limiting image contrast and acquisition speed. Careful consideration of the internal physiology is required for FRET sensor design, so that ligand binding and cell compatibility are well-preserved despite the fluorescence labeling procedures. This limitation of labeling positions leads to very low signal changes in FRET-based GPCR analysis. In addition, microscopy of these systems becomes even more challenging in single molecule or low-light applications where the accuracy and temporal resolution may become dramatically low. Fluorescent labels should therefore be brighter, protected from photobleaching, and as small as possible to avoid interference with the binding kinetics. The development of new fluorescent molecules and labeling methods is an ongoing process. However, a complete characterization of new labels and sensors takes time. So far, the perfect dye system for GPCR studies has not been found, even though there is high demand.
Thus, this thesis explores and applies a different approach based on improved illumination schemes for TIRF-M as well as metal-coated coverslips to enhance fluorescence and FRET efficiency. First, it is demonstrated that a 360° illumination scheme reduces typical TIRF artifacts and produces a much more homogenously illuminated field of view. Second, membrane imaging and FRET spectroscopy are improved by metal coatings that are used to modulate the fluorescent properties of common fluorescent dyes. Computer simulation methods are used to understand the underlying photophysics and to design the coatings. Third, this thesis explores the operational regime and limitations of plasmonic approaches with high sectioning capabilities. The findings are summarized by three publications that are presented in the results section of this work. In addition, the theory of fluorescence and FRET is explained, with particular attention to its emission modulations in the vicinity of metal-dielectric layers. Details of the instrumentation, computer simulations, and cell culture are described in the method section. The work concludes with a discussion of the findings within the framework of recent technological developments as well as perspectives and suggestions for future approaches complete the presented work.