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Institute
- Institut für Geologie (27) (remove)
The Cambrian is anomalous among geological systems as many reports divide it into three divisions of indeterminate rank. This use of “lower”, “middle”, and “upper” has been a convenient way to subdivide the Cambrian despite agreement it consists of four global series. Traditional divisions of the system into regional series (Lower, Middle, Upper) reflected local biotic developments not interprovincially correlatable with any precision. However, use of “lower”, “middle”, and “upper” is unsatisfactory. These adjectives lack standard definition, evoke the regional series, and are misused. Notably, there is an almost 50 year use of three Cambrian subsystems and a 1997 proposal to divide the Avalonian and global Cambrian into four series and three subsystems. The global series allow proposal of three formal subsystems: a ca. 32.6 Ma Lower Cambrian Subsystem (Terreneuvian and Series 2/proposed Lenaldanian Series), a ca. 9.8 Ma Middle, and a ca. 10 Ma Upper Cambrian Subsystem (=Furongian Series). Designations as “Lower Cambrian Subsystem” or “global Lower Cambrian” distinguish the new units from such earlier units as “Lower Cambrian Series” and substitute for the de facto subsystem terms “lower”, “middle”, and “upper”. Cambrian subsystems are comparable to the Carboniferous’ Lower (Mississippian) and Upper (Pennsylvanian) Subsystems.
A completely revised and enhanced version of the water balance model MODBIL of the regional water balance dynamics of Cyprus was developed for this study. The model is based on a physical, process-oriented, spatially distributed concept and is applied for the calculation of all important water balance components of the island for the time period of 1961-2004. The calibrated results are statistically analysed and visualised for the whole island area, and evaluated with respect to the renewability of natural water resources. Climate variability and changes of the past decades are analysed with regard to their influence on water balances. A further part of the study focusses on the simulation of impacts of potential climate change. The water balances are simulated under changing climatic conditions on the base of theoretical precipitation, temperature and relative humidity changes and the revealed impacts on the water balances and renewable resources are discussed. Furthermore, a first principal water balance scenario is developed for the assessment of the regional hydrological changes expected for Cyprus by the end of the 21st century. The scenarios are based on recently calculated climate change assessments for this part of the Mediterranean, under an assumed further increase of greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere.
The locality of Zwartbas is situated at the border of Namibia and South Africa about 15 km west of Noordoewer. The mapped area is confined by the Tandjieskoppe Mountains in the north and the Orange River in the south. Outcropping rocks are predominantly sediments of the Nama Group and of the Karoo Supergroup. During the compilation of this paper doubts arose about the correct classification of the Nama rocks as it is found in literature. Since no certain clues were found to revise the classification of the Nama rocks, the original classification remains still valid. Thus the Kuibis and Schwarzrand Subgroup constitute the Nama succession and date it to Vendian age. A glacial unconformity represents a hiatus for about 260 Ma. This is covered by sediments of the Karoo Supergroup. Late Carboniferous and early Permian glacial deposits of diamictitic shale of the Dwyka and shales of the Ecca Group overlie the unconformity. The shales of the Dwyka Group contain fossiliferous units and volcanic ash-layers. A sill of the Jurassic Tandjiesberg Dolerite Complex (also Karoo Supergroup) intruded rocks at the Dwyka-Ecca-boundary. Finally fluvial and aeolian deposits and calcretes of the Cretaceous to Tertiary Kalahari Group and recent depositionary events cover the older rocks occasionally.
At Zwartbas, about 10 km west of Vioolsdrif, southern Namibia, the Dwyka succession is composed of tillites and distal fossiliferous dropstone-bearing glacio-marine shales. The completely exposed Dwyka succession is interbedded with thin bentonites, altered distal pyroclastic deposits, which were derived from the magmatic arc at the southern rim of Gondwana. Dropstone-bearing and dropstonefree sequences intercalate with four diamictites, of which the two lowest were certainly recognised as tillites. Four events of deglaciation were proven at Zwartbas and thus consist with correlative deposits in southern Africa. Numerous fossilised fishes, trace fossils, and plant fragments appear frequently within the lower half of the Dwyka succession whereas trace fossils were principally found in the complete succession. Although the environmental determination is quite problematic, the fossil assemblage rather implies proximal, shallow water conditions with temporary restricted oxygenation. The hinterland was covered with considerable vegetation, which points to a moderate climate. Water salinity determinations based on shale geochemistry rectify contrary palaeontological results and point to rather brackish or non-marine conditions in comparison to present-day salinites. Geochemical analyses of the bentonites relate the pyroclastic deposits with acid to intermediate source magmas, as they are known from the magmatic arc in present-day Patagonia. Tectono-magmatic comparisons furthermore emphasise a syn-collision or volcanic-arc situation of the magma source. However, significant cyclicity in the production of the pyroclastic deposits was not observed. Radiometric age determinations of two tuff beds clearly date the onset of glacial activity into the Late Carboniferous.
In 2001 the 433 m deep Messel 2001 borehole was drilled in the centre of the Messel Pit, 25 km south of Frankfurt (Germany). Geoscientific results from this drilling clarified the origin of the circular-shaped basin as a maar-diatreme-structure. Recovered deposits consist of lacustrine sediments (0-240 m) and volcaniclastic rocks such as lapilli tuffs (240-373 m) as well as rocks of the underlying diatreme breccia (373 433 m). The lapilli tuffs, as main interest here, show little differentiation on a macro- and microscopic scale and appear as a massive and unsorted volcaniclastic body with dominating juvenile lapilli and accidental clasts mostly in the range of (sub)millimetres to centimetres in diameter. This study presents rock magnetic properties measured on core samples of the volcaniclastic units and explains the origin of downhole magnetic anomalies detected during the drilling project in 2001. Magnetic behaviour of the erupted material is related to fine-grained, Fe-rich (titano)-magnetites, which are dispersed within the juvenile lapilli. Temperature-dependent susceptibility experiments, isothermal remanent magnetisation and hysteresis investigations demonstrate similar ferrimagnetic properties throughout the volcaniclastic material, in terms of composition, coercivity and grain size (pseudo-single-domain particles) of the ferrimagnetic minerals. Thus, during emplacement of the erupted material, the ferrimagnetic minerals had the same remanence acquisition potential. However, demagnetisation experiments show different magnetic stability behaviour of the acquired natural remanent magnetisation (NRM). Heating experiments prove the acquisition of thermal remanent magnetisation (TRM) dominated by temperature effects which could have been occurred during eruption and deposition of volcanic material, forming the Messel maar-diatreme. It is assumed that the upper half of the lapilli tuffs was deposited at relatively low depositional temperatures (<300 °C), whereas the material of the lower half took advantage of higher temperatures (>>300 °C). To understand the rock magnetic character within the Messel maar-diatreme-facies, particle grain sizes, the degree of the relative fraction dominance and the shape of the juvenile fragments have been studied in more detail. Image analytical methods as well as major and trace element analyses on the juvenile fraction support the clear subdivision of the lapilli tuffs. These findings in combination with rockmagnetic data indicate a separation into a relatively hot, geochemically undifferentiated eruption phase and a colder, differentiated phase. A two-condition eruption stage at the end of the Messel volcanic activity is suggested. The juvenile particles account for the temperature evolution and heat conditions during deposition of the Messel tuffs and contribute to the origin of magnetic field anomalies. Based on gravity parameters and the results of magnetisation properties, the potential field 3D-model of the Messel subsurface explains the negative ground anomalies, calculates the mass and volume parameters of the drilled lithozones and shows the asymmetric appearance of the diatreme-structure.
The Mesosaurus Inland Sea covered, in the Late Paleozoic, vast areas (~5 Mio km2) of the SW-Gondwanan continental interior. Major depocentres are represented by the Karoo basins of SW-Africa and the Paraná Basin in South America. These areas were interconnected prior to the break-up of Gondwana and the subsequent opening of the South Atlantic Ocean. In Namibia and South Africa deposits of the Mesosaurus Inland Sea are preserved in the successions of the glacial Dwyka Group and the postglacial Ecca Group (Karoo Supergroup). These deposits comprise the major part of a 60-70 Ma depositional cycle and are the main focus of this study. The large-scale transgressive part of this cycle started in the Late Carboniferous with continental glacial deposits followed by marine glacial and postglacial inland sea deposits. During the Early Permian the Mesosaurus Inland Sea reached its greatest extent, which was accompanied by widespread deposition of Corg-rich sediments. The large scale regressive part is recorded by successions ranging from deep water offshore pelites and turbidite sandstones to shallow water shoreface and deltaic sandstones, deposited in a brackish environment. Shallow water inland sea sediments are in turn overlain by fluvio-lacustrine deposits, which are assigned to the Beaufort Group and form the upper part of the cycle. This successive change in the depositional environment from marine to brackish to freshwater is also reflected in the fossil record. During Dwyka times a marine association of the Gondwana faunal province was able to colonize parts of the Mesosaurus Inland Sea. Later, during lower Ecca times, the connection to the Panthalassan Ocean became insufficient to retain normal marine conditions, leading to strong faunal endemism in an isolated and brackish inland sea environ¬ment. The most well-known and widespread representatives of this endemic fauna are mesosaurid vertebrates and megadesmid bivalves. Numerous altered tuffs occur as interlayers within argillaceous sediments of the Dwyka and Ecca Group of southern Namibia. The vast majority of these altered tuffs are represented by soft and crumbly to hard and indurated, clay-mineral-rich, bentonitic layers. Another, much rarer type is represented by very hard, chert-like tuff layers, which are predominantly albitic in composition. Furthermore, tuff layers within the Gai-As Formation of the Huab area are rich in potassium feldspar and have a porcelain-like appearance. The diagenetically modified matrix is mainly crypto- to microcrystalline. Polished tuff specimen show, in some tuffs, plane lamination or bedding with two or more subunits forming a tuff layer. Some display a weakly developed lamination. Only in very rare cases were structures reminiscent of sedimentary micro-cross lamination observed. The sedimentary textures and structures of the tuffs indicate that they have been deposited mainly as distal ash-fall layers by suspension settling in water. Some may have also been deposited or modified under the influence of weak bottom currents. The primary, pyroclastic macro-components of the tuffs are mainly represented by crystals of quartz, plagio¬clase, and biotite. In some thin sections pseudo¬morphs after pyroxene or hornblende were observed. Euhedral zircon and apatite crystals were observed in almost every tuff. Vitric or formerly vitric macro-components are very rare. The matrix of the majority of the investigated tuffs is predominantly composed of clay minerals. However, the matrix of the tuffs originally consisted most probably of fine vitric ash particles. Soon after deposition the volcanic ash was diagenetically altered to smectitic clay minerals. At a later stage smectite was progressively replaced by illite under prograde conditions. Nowadays the matrix of the bentonitic tuffs is strongly illite-dominated and only in the softer tuff layers a minor smectite content can be detected. Both the primary macrocrystic components as well as the geochemistry of the altered tuffs indicate that their source magmas were mainly of intermediate composition. The abundance of splintery quartz and feldspar crystal fragments within the tuffs hints at a highly explosive plinian or phreatoplinian eruption style of the source volcanoes, which were most probably located within a subduction-related volcanic arc region along the southern margin of Gondwana. New single zircon U-Pb SHRIMP datings of tuff layers provide a much more reliable age control of the investigated sedimentary succession. U-Pb SHRIMP ages for tuff layers from the glaciogenic Dwyka Group in southwestern Africa range from 302.0 ± 3.0 to 297.1 ± 1.8 Ma. The basal part of the early post-glacial Prince Albert Formation is dated at around 290 Ma. SHRIMP ages for tuff layers from the upper part of the Prince Albert Formation, the Whitehill Formation, and the middle part of the Collingham Formation indicate that the Mesosaurus Sea reached its greatest extent at around 280 Ma.
The geologic barrier represents the final contact between a landfill and the environment. Ideally suited are clays and mudstones because of sufficient vertical and lateral extent, low hydraulic conductivities and high sorptive characteristics. Since hydraulic conductivity is no longer the single criteria to determine transport and retardation of contaminants in geologic landfill barrier materials, diffusive and sorptive characteristics of 4 different clay and mudstone lithologies in Northern Bavaria, were investigated. Cored samples from various depths were included in this study and subjected to evaluations of geochemistry, mineralogy, physical parameters, sorption and diffusion. A transient double reservoir with decreasing source concentration was designed and constructed using clear polycarbonate cylinders for undisturbed clay plugs of 2 to 4cm thickness. Samples were also fitted with internal electrical conductivity probes to determine the migration of the diffusive front. A multi chemical species synthetic landfill leachate was contrived to simulate and evaluate natural pollutant conditions. A computational method for determining mineralogy from geochemical data was also developed. It was found that sorptive processes are mostly controlled by the quality and type of fine grained phyllosilicates and the individual chemical species involved exhibited linear, Freundlich, as well as Langmuir sorption properties. Effective diffusion and sorption coefficients were also determined using POLLUTEv6 (GAEA, 1997) software and receptor reservoir concentrations for K, Na, Ca, Cu, NH4, Cl, NO3, SO4, and concentration totals at predetermined time intervals. Anion exclusion proved to be a major factor in the diffusion process and was used to explain many observed anomalies. Furthermore, diffusion coefficients were found not to be static with a multi chemical species leachate, but actually varied during the course of the experiment. Strong indications point toward the major role of pore space quality, shape, and form as control of diffusive properties of a geologic barrier. A correlation of CECNa of the samples with De may point to a possible deduction of diffusive properties for multi species leachates without extensive and time consuming laboratory tests
Two phases of reef sampling were carried out. The first included regular samples taken along the coastline of Aqaba (27km long) at depths of 4-15m, and used to determine spatial distribution of pollution. The second phase included three 20cm-deep cores obtained from within the industrial zone. These cores were drilled from pre-dated communities, where the growth rate was determined earlier to be 10mm y-1, therefore the core obtained represented a period of 20 years (i.e. 1980-2000). The cores were used to reconstruct the metal pollution history at the most heavily used site along the coast (industrial zone).All samples were examined with respect to their metal content of Cd, Pb, Cu, Zn, Ni, and Cr. Almost all of them have shown records above the calculated background values. Mean values of Cd, Pb, Cu, Zn, Ni and Cr recorded along the coast were 1,25; 4,26; 9,76; 11,40; 2,29 and 10,522, µg g-1 respectively, and for core samples 1.4; 4.2; 5.7; 6.4; 2.3 and 8.21 µg g-1 respectively. Spatial distribution of metal enrichment in reef samples have shown a general and clear increasing trend towards the south. Same increasing trend was also in core samples where the six metals have shown a prominent increasing trend towards the core surface indicating an increase of coastal activities during the last twenty years. High and relatively high values were recorded at the oil port, the industrial area and main port, and thus categorized as highly impacted areas. Intermediate metal content were recorded in samples of the north beach, and thus classified as being relatively impacted, where the lowest metal concentrations were observed at the marine reserve, the least impacted site along the coast. The high enrichment of metal is attributed mainly to anthropogenic impacts. The natural inputs of the six metals studied in the Gulf of Aqaba are generally very low, due to the geographic positions and the absence of wadi discharge and as a result of low rainfall. Several potential sources of heavy metals were investigated. The industrial-related activities, port operations and phosphate dust were among the main sources currently threatening the marine ecosystem in Aqaba. Applying the Principle Components Analysis method (PCA) to all samples taken along the coastline has resulted in categorizing three different groups according to their metal enrichment, the first is composed of samples taken from the north beach and the main port with intermediate to high enrichment, the second joined the samples of the marine park and the marine reserve with low and relatively low enrichment, and the last group joined samples of the industrial zone and the oil port with high enrichment. The Principle Component Scores were also utilized to confirm the spatial distribution and relationships of the examined heavy metals along the coast. Two models (interpolated by SURFER  7.0 and ArcView 3.2a) were developed, the first was based on the PC scores of the first component, and shows clearly the positive anomalies in metal concentrations along the coast. The second model was developed by plotting the second factor scores on a landuse map of Aqaba. According to these models, it has shown that the positive anomalies are associated with three different zones; industrial area, the main port and the oil port. The results have shown that coral reefs can be used as good environmental indicator for assessments and monitoring processes, and they can provide data and information on both the spatial distribution of pollution and their history. The present work is the first to document the environmental status along the whole coast of Aqaba and the first to use coral reef as a tool/ indicator.
Rifting and breakup of Westgondwana in the Late Jurassic/ Early Cretaceous initiated the formation of the South Atlantic and its conjugated pair of passive continental margins. The Walvis Basin offshore NW-Namibia is an Early Cretaceous to recent depositional centre with a typically wedge-shaped postrift sedimentary succession covering an area of 105000km2. A 2D model transect across the central Walvis Basin and adjacent onshore areas is used as a case study to investigate quantitatively the denudational history of the evolving passive margin and the related contemporaneous depositional postrift evolution offshore. The database for both the onshore and offshore part of the model traverse is well constrained by own field work, published data as well as by seismic and well data supported by samples. The ultimate goal of this project is to present an integrated approach towards a quantitative link between surface processes and internal processes in terms of a mass and process balance.
Ziel dieser Arbeit war es, die Grundwasserneubildung im Einzugsgebiet des Ouham mit den vorhandenen zum Teil sehr lückenhaften Daten zu bestimmen. Hierbei sollten unterschiedliche Methoden in der wechselfeuchten, subtropischen Klimazone verglichen und bewertet werden. Das Arbeitsgebiet umfasst das Einzugsgebiet des Oberlaufes des Ouham, eines Flusses im Nordwesten der Zentralafrikanischen Republik. Das hier untersuchte Flussnetz gehört zum Einzugsgebiet des Chari und fließt dem abflusslosen Tschadbecken zu. Das Einzugsgebiet des Ouham liegt in der sahel-sudanischen Klimazone. Zwischen November und März bzw. April herrschen hier trockene Nordostwinde vor, d.h. messbarer Oberflächenabfluss findet in der Trockenzeit lediglich in den Flüssen erster Ordnung statt. Von Mai bis Oktober bestimmen feuchte Südwestwinde das Wetter, es bilden sich zusätzlich zu den Abflüssen erster Ordnung Abflüsse dort, wo es Morphologie und Bodenverhältnisse zulassen. Das Abflussverhalten des Ouham wird im Untersuchungsgebiet an fünf Flusspegeln gemessen. Die größten Abflussspenden treten im Westen auf, mit der Abnahme des Niederschlags nach Osten nimmt auch die Abflussspende der einzelnen Einzugsgebiete ab. Die maximalen Abflussmengen der einzelnen Pegel werden in den westlicheren Teileinzugsgebieten im September gemessen, in den östlicheren Teileinzugsgebieten erstreckt sich das Maximum über September und Oktober bzw. Oktober. Der Niederschlag nimmt von Südwesten nach Nordosten kontinuierlich ab, dieser allgemeine Trend wird durch die Steigungsregen am Massiv von „Bakoré“ modifiziert. Niederschlagsreiche Jahre sind 1951 bis 1952, 1954 bis 1955, 1957, 1960, 1962, 1963 und 1969, ausgeprägt niederschlagsarme Jahre sind 1972, 1973, 1977, 1982 bis 1984 und 1986 bis 1987. Das Untersuchungsgebiet besteht zum größten Teil aus einem proterozoischen Granit-Gneis-Sockel, der im äußersten Südwesten von mesozoischen Sandsteinen bedeckt ist. Das gesamte Grundgebirge ist von einer Vielzahl von Störungen durchzogen, deren Hauptstörungsrichtung Nordwest – Südost, bzw. senkrecht dazu verläuft. Innerhalb großer Störungs- und Intrusionsbereiche ist das Gestein stärker geklüftet. Die Grundwasserneubildung wurde mit unterschiedlichen Methoden berechnet, zum erst auf der Basis von Abflussdaten nach drei unterschiedlichen Verfahren (WUNDT, KILLE, MAILLET), dann mit der Wasserhaushaltsgleichung und durch eine Modellierung der Wasserbilanz mit dem Programm MODBIL . Die ermittelten unterirdischen Abflüsse differieren deutlich. Am höchsten sind die Abflussmengen nach WUNDT, am niedrigsten sind die nach MAILLET berechneten. Für das Einzugs¬gebiet des Ouham, mit der vorhandenen, im Westen deutlich ausgeprägten Topo¬graphie und den heftigen schub¬weise erfolgenden Niederschlägen, wurde die nach KILLE ermittelten Grundwasserneubildungsraten als realistisch gegenüber den Grundwasserneubildungsraten nach WUNDT angesehen. Die Grundwasserneubildung nimmt aufgrund des unterschiedlichen Wasserdargebotes von Westen nach Osten ab, im Westen werden in niederschlagsreichen Jahren 150 mm/Jahr, während es im Osten lediglich 79 mm/Jahr sind. In niederschlagsarmen Jahren nimmt die Grundwasserneubildung von 106 mm/Jahr im Westen auf 64 mm/Jahr im Osten ab. Nach MAILLET wird eine Grundwasserneubildungsrate von 50 mm/Jahr im Westen und 26 mm/Jahr im Osten berechnet, sie stellt ein Mindestmaß an Grundwasserneubildung dar. Die Bestimmung der Grundwasserneubildung mit der Wasserhaushaltsgleichung wurde als Plausibilitätskontrolle der aus Abflussdaten ermittelten Werte durchgeführt. Die ermittelten Grundwasserneubildungsraten liegen deutlich über denen nach dem Verfahren von KILLE und MAILLET berechneten. In einem weiteren Verfahren wurde die Berechnung der Grundwasserneubildung durch Modellierung der Wasser¬bilanz mit dem Programm MODBIL durchgeführt. Hierbei werden vorhandene Punktdaten wie Niederschlag, Temperatur und Verdunstung mit primär existierenden Raumdaten wie Topographie, Morphologie, Landnutzung und Geologie in Raumdaten umgewandelt und auf Grundlage des Bodenwasserhaushaltes die aktuelle Verdunstung, der Abfluss und die Grundwasserneubildung berechnet. Die berechneten Mittelwerte von effektivem Niederschlag, potentieller und aktueller Verdunstung der einzelnen Teileinzugsgebiete lassen einen deutlichen West-Ost-Trend erkennen. Der höchste effektive Niederschlag fällt im westlichsten Einzugsgebiet und nimmt weiter nach Osten weiter ab. Potentielle und aktuelle Verdunstung nehmen von Westen nach Osten zu, wobei bei der aktuellen Verdunstung dieser Trend nicht sehr stark ausgeprägt ist. Das mittlere Abflussverhalten der Teileinzugsgebiete folgt keinem deutlichen West-Ost-Trend. Im Gegensatz dazu nimmt die Grundwasserneubildung von Westen nach Osten ab.