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- Adam Opel AG (1)
- BMBF (1)
- Blindeninstitut, Ohmstr. 7, 97076, Wuerzburg, Germany (1)
- Deutsches Zentrum für Präventionsforschung Psychische Gesundheit (DZPP) (1)
- Ernst Strüngmann Institute for Neuroscience in Cooperation with Max Planck Society (ESI) (1)
- Evangelisches Studienwerk e.V. (1)
- Forschungsverbund ForChange des Bayrischen Kultusministeriums (1)
- IFT Institut für Therapieforschung München (1)
- Klinik für Psychiatrie und Psychotherapie, Universität Würzburg (1)
- Opel Automobile GmbH (1)
Anxiety research is one of the major psychological research domains and looks back on decades of research activity. Traditionally, novel theories and approaches are tested utilizing animal models. One way to study inherent anxiety in rodents is the elevated plus-maze (EPM). The EPM is a plus-shaped platform with two closed, i.e., walled, arms and two open unwalled arms. If given the opportunity to freely explore the apparatus, rodents instinctively avoid the open arms to protect themselves from predators. Hence, they spent less time on open and more time on closed arms, which is behaviorally associated with general anxiety. In the course of the pharmacological validation, it was found that this exploratory pattern can be reversed by anxiolytic substances, e.g., benzodiazepines, or potentiated by anxiogenics. One of the significant advantages of the EPM is that no prior training session is required in contrast to conditioning studies, thus allowing to observe natural behavior. Therefore, together with the economic and uncomplicated setup, the EPM has become a standard preclinical rodent anxiety test over the decades. In order to validate these rodent anxiety tests, there have recently been attempts to retranslate them to humans. A paramount of cross-species validation is not only the simple transferability of these animal tests but also the observation of anxiety behaviors that are evolutionarily conserved across species. Accordingly, it could be possible to conclude various factors associated with the etiology and maintenance of anxiety disorders in humans. So far, convincing translations of the EPM to humans are still lacking. For that reason, the primary aim of this dissertation is to retranslate the EPM throughout three studies and to evaluate cross-species validity critically. Secondly, the undertaken studies are set out to observe ambulatory activity equivalent to rodent EPM behavior, i.e., open arm avoidance. Thirdly, the undertaken studies aimed to assess the extent to which trait anxiety influences human exploratory activity on the platform to associate it with the assumption that rodent EPM-behavior is a reflection of general anxiety. Finally, virtual reality (VR) was the method of choice to maintain the economic advantage and adjust the EPM size to humans. Study 1 (N = 30) was set up to directly transfer the rodent EPM regarding test design and experimental procedure using a Computer Automatic Virtual Environment (CAVE). The results revealed that humans unlike rodents display a general open arms approach during free exploration. However, open arm avoidance was associated with high trait anxiety and acrophobia (fear of height), which was initially assessed as a control variable due to the virtual platform height. Regression analyses and subjective anxiety ratings hinted at a more significant influence of acrophobia on open arm avoidance. In addition, it was assumed that the open arms approach might have resulted from claustrophobic tendencies experienced in the closed arms due to the high walls. Study 2 (N = 61) sought to differentiate the influence of trait anxiety and acrophobia and adapt the virtual EPM to humans. Therefore, parts of the platform held a semi-transparent grid-floor texture, and the wall height on the closed arms was reduced to standard handrail level. Moreover, participants were priorly screened to exclude clinically significant levels of acrophobia, claustrophobia, and agoraphobia. The data on general exploratory activity showed no arm preference. Regression analyses confirmed that acrophobia is related to open arm avoidance, corroborating the finding of Study 1. Surprisingly, for trait anxiety, the result of Study 1 could not be replicated. Instead, for trait anxiety, no significant effect was found indicating that predominantly fear of heights shapes human EPM behavior even on a subclinical stage. In Study 3 (N = 57), the EPM was embedded into a city setting to 1) create a more natural human environment and 2) eliminate height. Furthermore, a head-mounted display was utilized for VR presentation, and arousal ratings were introduced. Participants were screened for high and low levels of trait anxiety and agoraphobia, and claustrophobia. Replicating the findings of Study 2, no difference in open and closed arm activity was observed, and no effect was found in relationship with trait anxiety. The data on anxiety ratings and claustrophobia suggest a positive correlation indicating that in this city EPM, claustrophobic tendencies might play a role in closed arm avoidance. In summary, this thesis added valuable insights into the retranslation of a well-established standard anxiety test used in rodents. However, it also majorly challenges current findings on the cross-species validity of the EPM. Various explanatory models for the results are critically discussed and associated with clinical implications concerning future research.
The present work comprises four studies dealing with the investigation of the auditory event-related potentials (ERP) Mismatch Negativity (MMN), P300, and N400 under different attentional instructions, and with their application in patients with disorders of consciousness (DOC) to assess residual cognitive functioning. In guided interviews (study 1), practitioners working with DOC patients stated their general interest in and an objective need for the complementation of current diagnostic procedures by reliable and valid ERP-based methods. Subsequently, in study 2, simple oddball and semantic paradigms were applied to 19 behaviorally non-responsive DOC patients revealing the presence of at least one ERP in eight patients investigated. In the third and fourth study, specific attentional effects on ERPs were investigated in healthy participants to define optimal instructions and stimulus parameters. In study 3, MMN and N400 amplitudes were assessed in 18 participants, and in study 4, MMN and P300 amplitudes were assessed in 32 participants. Both studies included an ignore task (attention on simultaneous visual stimuli), a passive task, and a focused task and revealed distinct attentional effects on P300 and N400 with largest amplitudes in the focused task, smaller ones in the passive task and no ERP in the ignore task. An MMN was elicited in all tasks, but still, amplitudes differed as a function of task. In addition, study 4 included oddball paradigms comprising several deviants in different dimensions. Higher amplitudes were found in this multifeature paradigm compared to traditional oddball paradigms and larger amplitudes were elicited by deviants highly different from standards. It is concluded that ERPs represent a promising tool to complement clinical assessment of DOC patients. Application of ERP paradigms should include focused instructions, especially when using semantic material. Furthermore, multifeature paradigms have been proven especially useful eliciting large amplitudes and allowing for the investigation of several dimensions of deviants at the same time.
One primary source for self-knowledge is social comparison. Often objective criteria for self-evaluations are not available or useful and therefore comparisons with other people play a crucial role in self-evaluations. But the question is whether social comparisons could indeed provide information about the self without consuming too much cognitive resources or time. Therefore, in this research I wanted to look at practice effects in social comparison and the particular significance of routine standards. Whereas traditional research on standard selection mostly focused on goal-oriented and strategic standard selection processes, this research sets out to integrate social cognitive knowledge, ideas, and methods. Researchers from many different fields agree that people’s behavior and thinking is not fully determined by rational choices or normative considerations. Quite the contrary, factors like knowledge accessibility, habits, procedural practice, stereotyping, categorization, and many more cognitive processes play an important role. The same may be true in social comparison and standard selection. In my research I demonstrate that efficiency concerns play an important role in social comparison. Since people may not be able to engage in a strategic standard selection whenever they engage in social comparison processes, there has to be a more efficient alternative. Using routine standards would be such an alternative. The efficiency advantage of routine standards may thereby be founded not only in the abandonment of a strategic but arduous standard selection process, but also in a higher efficiency of the comparison process itself. I therefore set out to show how the use of routine standards facilitates the social comparison processes. This was done in three steps. First, I replicated and improved our former research (Mussweiler & Rüter, 2003, JPSP) indicating that people really do use their best friends as routine standards to evaluate themselves. Second, I demonstrated that it is more efficient to compare with a routine standard than with another standard. In Studies 2 and 3 I therefore show that comparisons between the self and a routine standard (either a natural routine standard like the best friend or a experimentally induced routine standard based on practice) are faster and more efficient than comparisons with other standards. Finally, I looked at the underlying mechanism of the efficiency advantage of routine standards. The results of Studies 4 and 5 point out, that both general as well as specific practice effects occur with repeated comparisons. Whereas a specific practice effect implies the repeated processing of the same content (i.e., knowledge about the routine standard), general practice effects indicate that the pure process (i.e., comparing the self with a routine standard) becomes more efficient regardless whether new content (i.e., comparison relevant knowledge) has to be processed. Taken together, the efficiency advantage of routine standards during self-evaluation is based not only on the lack of necessity for an arduous standard selection, but is additionally supported by the facilitation of the comparison process itself. The efficiency of routine standards may provide an explanation as to why people base self-evaluations on comparisons with these standards and dispense with strategic considerations to select the most suitable standard.
Social‐cognitive theory posits that children learn gender stereotypes through gendered information. The present study examined whether children learn new gender stereotypes from stories when unknown words are linked to a gendered protagonist or context information. In Experiment 1, 40 3‐ to 6‐year‐old preschoolers were read stories with either a gendered protagonist embedded within a non‐gendered context, or a non‐gendered protagonist embedded within a gendered context. In Experiment 2, the same sample of children were read stories with the protagonist and the context displaying congruent or incongruent gender information. Each story featured an unknown activity linked with the stereotypical content. Both experiments indicate that the children rated the activity according to both the gender of the context and of the protagonist; however, the effect of the latter was stronger. In addition, children showed higher interest in the unknown activity if the protagonist’s gender matched their own sex. Thus, gender information in stories influences how children perceive unknown words.
Alerting signals often serve to reduce temporal uncertainty by predicting the time of stimulus onset. The resulting response time benefits have often been explained by facilitated translation of stimulus codes into response codes on the basis of established stimulus-response (S-R) links. In paradigms of masked S-R priming alerting signals also modulate response activation processes triggered by subliminally presented prime stimuli. In the present study we tested whether facilitation of visuo-motor translation processes due to alerting signals critically depends on established S-R links. Alerting signals resulted in significantly enhanced masked priming effects for masked prime stimuli that included and that did not include established S-R links fi.e., target vs. novel primes). Yet, the alerting-priming interaction was more pronounced for target than for novel primes. These results suggest that effects of alerting signals on masked priming are especially evident when S-R links between prime and target exist. At the same time, an alerting-priming interaction also for novel primes suggests that alerting signals also facilitate stimulus-response translation processes when masked prime stimuli provide action-trigger conditions in terms of programmed S-R links.
The effect of inherently threatening contexts on visuocortical engagement to conditioned threat
(2023)
Fear and anxiety are crucial for adaptive responding in life‐threatening situations. Whereas fear is a phasic response to an acute threat accompanied by selective attention, anxiety is characterized by a sustained feeling of apprehension and hypervigilance during situations of potential threat. In the current literature, fear and anxiety are usually considered mutually exclusive, with partially separated neural underpinnings. However, there is accumulating evidence that challenges this distinction between fear and anxiety, and simultaneous activation of fear and anxiety networks has been reported. Therefore, the current study experimentally tested potential interactions between fear and anxiety. Fifty‐two healthy participants completed a differential fear conditioning paradigm followed by a test phase in which the conditioned stimuli were presented in front of threatening or neutral contextual images. To capture defense system activation, we recorded subjective (threat, US‐expectancy), physiological (skin conductance, heart rate) and visuocortical (steady‐state visual evoked potentials) responses to the conditioned stimuli as a function of contextual threat. Results demonstrated successful fear conditioning in all measures. In addition, threat and US‐expectancy ratings, cardiac deceleration, and visuocortical activity were enhanced for fear cues presented in threatening compared with neutral contexts. These results are in line with an additive or interactive rather than an exclusive model of fear and anxiety, indicating facilitated defensive behavior to imminent danger in situations of potential threat.
Introduction
There is mounting evidence for the influence of emotional content on working memory performance. This is particularly important in light of the emotion processing that needs to take place when emotional content interferes with executive functions. In this study, we used emotional words of different valence but with similar arousal levels in an n-back task.
Methods
We examined the effects on activation in the prefrontal cortex by means of functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) and on the late positive potential (LPP). FNIRS and LPP data were examined in 30 healthy subjects.
Results
Behavioral results show an influence of valence on the error rate depending on the difficulty of the task: more errors were made when the valence was negative and the task difficult. Brain activation was dependent both on the difficulty of the task and on the valence: negative valence of a word diminished the increase in activation, whereas positive valence did not influence the increase in activation, while difficulty levels increased. The LPP also differentiated between the different valences, and in addition was influenced by the task difficulty, the more difficult the task, the less differentiation could be observed.
Conclusions
Summarized, this study shows the influence of valence on a verbal working memory task. When a word contained a negative valence, the emotional content seemed to take precedence in contrast to words containing a positive valence. Working memory and emotion processing sites seemed to overlap and compete for resources even when words are carriers of the emotional content.
It has been demonstrated that verbal context information alters the neural processing of ambiguous faces such as faces with no apparent facial expression. In social anxiety, neutral faces may be implicitly threatening for socially anxious individuals due to their ambiguous nature, but even more so if these neutral faces are put in self-referential negative contexts. Therefore, we measured event-related brain potentials (ERPs) in response to neutral faces which were preceded by affective verbal information (negative, neutral, positive). Participants with low social anxiety (LSA; n = 23) and high social anxiety (HSA; n = 21) were asked to watch and rate valence and arousal of the respective faces while continuous EEG was recorded. ERP analysis revealed that HSA showed elevated P100 amplitudes in response to faces, but reduced structural encoding of faces as indexed by reduced N170 amplitudes. In general, affective context led to an enhanced early posterior negativity (EPN) for negative compared to neutral facial expressions. Moreover, HSA compared to LSA showed enhanced late positive potentials (LPP) to negatively contextualized faces, whereas in LSA this effect was found for faces in positive contexts. Also, HSA rated faces in negative contexts as more negative compared to LSA. These results point at enhanced vigilance for neutral faces regardless of context in HSA, while structural encoding seems to be diminished (avoidance). Interestingly, later components of sustained processing (LPP) indicate that LSA show enhanced visuocortical processing for faces in positive contexts (happy bias), whereas this seems to be the case for negatively contextualized faces in HSA (threat bias). Finally, our results add further new evidence that top-down information in interaction with individual anxiety levels can influence early-stage aspects of visual perception.