Refine
Has Fulltext
- yes (6)
Is part of the Bibliography
- yes (6)
Document Type
- Doctoral Thesis (6)
Language
- English (6) (remove)
Keywords
- Nanodraht (6) (remove)
Institute
Site-directed bioorthogonal conjugation techniques have substantially advanced research in numerous areas. Their exceptional value reflects in the extent of applications, that have been realized with spacial-controlled bioorthogonal reactions. Specific labeling of surfaces, proteins, and other biomolecule allows for new generations of drug delivery, tracking, and analyzing systems. With the continuous advance and refinement of available methods, this field of research will become even more relevant in the time to come. Yet, as individual as the desired purpose is, as different can be the most suitable modification strategy. In this thesis, two different bioconjugation approaches, namely CuAAC and factor XIIIa mediated ligation, are used in distinct application fields, featuring eGFP as a model protein showcasing the advantages as well as the challenges of each technique.
The introduction of a unique accessible functionality is the most critical feature of a site-specific reaction, and the first considerable hurdle to clear. While most surfaces, peptides, or small molecules might require less expenditure to modulate, equipping large biomolecules like proteins with additional traits requires careful consideration to preserve the molecule’s stability and function. Therefore, the first section of this project comprises the engineering of eGFP via rational design. Initially, wild-type eGFP was subcloned, expressed, and characterized to serve as a reference value for the designed variants. Subsequently, eGFP was mutated and expressed to display a recognition site for factor XIIIa. Additionally, a second mutant harbored a TAG-codon to enable amber codon suppression and consequently the incorporation of the alkyne bearing unnatural amino acid Plk to support a CuAAC reaction. Fluorescence spectroscopy was used to confirm that the fluorescent properties of all expressed muteins were identically equal to wild-type eGFP, which is a reliable marker for the intact barrel structure of the protein. Trypsin digestion and HPLC were deployed to confirm each protein variant's correct sequence and mass.
The second part of this work focuses on the conjugation of cargo molecules deploying the chosen approaches. Solid-phase peptide synthesis was used to create a peptide that served as a lysine donor substrate in the crosslinking mechanism of FXIIIa. Additionally, the peptide was provided with a cysteine moiety to allow for highly flexible and simple loading of desired cargo molecules via conventional thiol-Michael addition, thus establishing an adaptive labeling platform. The effective ligation was critically reviewed and confirmed by monitoring the exact mass changes by HPLC. Protocols for attaching payloads such as biotin and PEG to the linker peptide were elaborated. While the biotin construct was successfully conjugated to the model protein, the eGFP-PEG linkage was not achieved judging by SDS-PAGE analysis. Furthermore, featuring isolated peptide sequences, the properties of the FXIIIa-mediated reaction were characterized in detail. Relative substrate turnover, saturation concentrations, by-product formation, and incubation time were comprehensively analyzed through HPLC to identify optimal reaction conditions. CuAAC was successfully used to label the Plk-eGFP mutein with Azide-biotin, demonstrated by western blot imaging.
Within the last part of this study, the application of the conjugation systems was extended to different surfaces. As regular surfaces do not allow for immediate decoration, supplementary functionalization techniques like gold-thiol interaction and silanization on metal oxides were deployed. That way gold-segmented nanowires and Janus particles were loaded with enoxaparin and DNA, respectively. Nickel and cobalt nanowires were modified with silanes that served as linker molecules for subsequent small molecule attachment or PEGylation. Finally, the eGFP muteins were bound to a particle surface in a site-specific manner. Beads displaying amino groups were utilized to demonstrate the effective use of FXIIIa in surface modification. Moreover, the bead’s functional moieties were converted to azides to enable CuAAC “Click Chemistry” and direct comparison. Each modification was analyzed and confirmed through fluorescence microscopy.
Atomare Ketten, sogenannte Nano-Drähte, entstehen durch Selbstorganisation adsorbierter Metallatome auf einer Halbleiteroberfläche. Aufgrund der starken räumlichen Einschränkung der Ladungsträger innerhalb dieser Ketten entsteht dabei oftmals eine metallische Bandstruktur mit starker Anisotropie. Im Falle phononischer Ankopplung an das Substrat kann so ein eindimensionales (1D) Metall instabil gegen eine periodische Gitterverzerrung werden, bei der es zu einer Ausbildung einer Energielücke kommt. Dieser Metall-Isolator-Übergang wird dabei als Peierls Übergang bezeichnet. Für verschwindend geringe Kopplung der Ketten untereinander bzw. an das Substrat, d.h. im strikt eindimensionalen Fall, bricht das Fermi Flüssigkeitsmodell für dreidimensionale (3D) Metalle zusammen. Dessen Quasiteilchen werden durch kollektive Anregungen von Spin und Ladung ersetzt. Diesen Zustand bezeichnet man als Tomonaga-Luttinger Flüssigkeit. Beide Phänomene, Peierlsübergang und Tomonaga-Luttinger Flüssigkeit lassen sich anhand der elektronischen Bandstruktur experimentell nachweisen. Bei dem hier untersuchten Probensystem handelt es sich um Gold-induzierte Nandrähte auf der Germanium (001)-Oberfläche, kurz Au/Ge(001). Deren Wachstum erfolgt epitaktisch entlang der durch das Substrat vorgegebenen Dimer-Reihen, welche die freie Germaniumoberfläche in Form einer (2×1)-Symmetrie einnimmt. Die abwechselnde Stapelfolge ABAB des Substrates führt dabei zu zwei unterschiedlichen Drahtrichtungen, die jeweils um 90° zueinander gedreht sind, wenn man eine Einfachstufe von 1.4 A von einer A-Terrasse auf eine B-Terrasse oder umgekehrt geht. Die vorherrschende Kinetik während der Gold-Deposition bzw. das Benetzungsverhalten ermöglicht dabei eine vollständige Bedeckung der vormals freien Oberfläche mit Nanodrähten, deren Abmessungen einzig und allein durch Defekte bzw. die Größe der darunterliegenden Ge-Terrasse begrenzt sind. Um die Längenskala der Subtrat-Terrassen zu optimieren, wurde eine Reinigungsprozedur für Ge (001) entwickelt, bei der nass-chemisches Ätzen mit anschliessender Trocken-Oxidation zum Einsatz kommt. Die darauf aufbauenden Nanodrähte wurden im Anschluss mittels winkelaufgelöster Photoelektronenspektroskopie auf ihre elektronische Bandstruktur untersucht. Dabei wurden zwei neuartige Zustände beobachtet: ein metallischer, zweidimensionaler Loch-Zustand, der seinen Ursprung höchstwahrscheinlich in tieferen Schichten des Germaniums hat; und ein eindimensionaler Oberflächenzustand mit elektronenartiger Dispersion, dessen bandintegrierte Spektralfunktion von der einer Fermiflüssigkeit abweicht. Stattdessen wird ein exponentieller Abfall des spektralen Gewichtes als Funktion der Energie zum Ferminiveau hin beobachtet. Dieses Verhalten kann über einen weiten Temperaturbereich beobachtet werden und lässt sich mit der Tomonaga-Luttinger Flüssigkeit für strikt eindimensionale Systeme erklären. Zum weiteren theoretischen Verständnis dieses Phänomes, beispielsweise durch Bandstrukuturrechnungen mittels Dichte-Funktional-Theorie, bedarf es der genauen Kenntnis der atomaren Struktur dieser Ketten. Selbige wurde mittels Oberflächenröntgenbeugung (engl. surface x-ray diffraction, SXRD) untersucht. Auf Basis der gewonnenen Patterson-Karte lassen sich Rückschlüsse auf die interatomaren Abstände der Goldatome untereinander in der Einheitszelle ziehen. Dies stellt einen ersten wichtigen Schritt auf dem Weg zu einem vollständigen Strukturmodell dar. Darüber hinaus wurden erste vielversprechende Schritte unternommen, das Nanodrahtsystem kontrolliert zu manipulieren. Durch geringfügige, zusätzliche Deposition von Kalium konnte dabei eine schrittweise Erhöhung der Bandfüllung erzielt werden. Für weitergehende Kaliumanlagerungen im (Sub-)Monolagenbereich konnte sogar eine neue Rekonstruktion erzielt werden.
A novel growth method has been developed, allowing for the growth of strained HgTe shells on CdTe nanowires (NWs). The growth of CdTe-HgTe core-shell NWs required high attention in controlling basic parameters like substrate temperature and the intensity of supplied material fluxes. The difficulties in finding optimized growth conditions have been successfully overcome in this work.
We found the lateral redistribution of liquid growth seeds with a ZnTe growth start to be crucial to trigger vertical CdTe NW growth. Single crystalline zinc blende CdTe NWs grew, oriented along [111]B. The substrate temperature was the most critical parameter to achieve straight and long wires. In order to adjust it, the growth was monitored by reflection high-energy electron diffraction, which was used for fine tuning of the temperature over time in each growth run individually. For optimized growth conditions, a periodic diffraction pattern allowed for the detailed analysis of atomic arrangement on the surfaces and in the bulk. The ability to do so reflected the high crystal quality and ensemble uniformity of our CdTe NWs. The NW sides were formed by twelve stable, low-index crystalline facets. We observed two types stepped and polar sides, separated by in total six flat and non-polar facets.
The high crystalline quality of the cores allowed to grow epitaxial HgTe shells around. We reported on two different heterostructure geometries. In the first one, the CdTe NWs exhibit a closed HgTe shell, while for the second one, the CdTe NWs are overgrown mainly on one side. Scanning electron microscopy and scanning transmission electron microscopy confirmed, that many of the core-shell NWs are single crystalline zinc blende and have a high uniformity. The symmetry of the zinc blende unit cell was reduced by residual lattice strain. We used high-resolution X-ray diffraction to reveal the strain level caused by the small lattice mismatch in the heterostructures. Shear strain has been induced by the stepped hetero-interface, thereby stretching the lattice of the HgTe shell by 0.06 % along a direction oriented with an angle of 35 ° to the interface.
The different heterostructures obtained, were the base for further investigation of quasi-one-dimensional crystallites of HgTe. We therefore developed methods to reliably manipulate, align, localize and contact individual NWs, in order to characterize the charge transport in our samples. Bare CdTe cores were insulating, while the HgTe shells were conducting. At low temperature we found the mean free path of charge carriers to be smaller, but the phase coherence length to be larger than the sample size of several hundred nanometers. We observed universal conductance fluctuations and therefore drew the conclusion, that the trajectories of charge carriers are defined by elastic backscattering at randomly distributed scattering sites. When contacted with superconducting leads, we saw induced superconductivity, multiple Andreev reflections and the associated excess current. Thus, we achieved HgTe/superconductor interfaces with high interfacial transparency.
In addition, we reported on the appearance of peaks in differential resistance at Delta/e for HgTe-NW/superconductor and 2*Delta/e for superconductor/HgTe-NW/superconductor junctions, which is possibly related to unconventional pairing at the HgTe/superconductor interface. We noticed that the great advantage of our self-organized growth is the possibility to employ the metallic droplet, formerly seeding the NW growth, as a superconducting contact. The insulating wire cores with a metallic droplet at the tip have been overgrown with HgTe in a fully in-situ process. A very high interface quality was achieved in this case.
Novel appraches to the molecular beam epitaxy of core-shell nanowires in the group II telluride material system were explored in this work. Significant advances in growth spurred the development of a flexible and reliable platform for a charge transport characterization of the topological insulator HgTe in a tubular nanowire geometry. The transport results presented provide an important basis for the design of future studies that strive for the experimental realization of topological charge transport in the quantum wire limit.
Self-organized nanowires at semiconductor surfaces offer the unique opportunity to study electrons in reduced dimensions. Notably the dimensionality of the system determines it’s electronic properties, beyond the quasiparticle description. In the quasi-one-dimensional (1D) regime with weak lateral coupling between the chains, a Peierls instability can be realized. A nesting condition in the Fermi surface leads to a backfolding of the 1D electron band and thus to an insulating state. It is accompanied by a charge density wave (CDW) in real space that corresponds to the nesting vector. This effect has been claimed to occur in many surface-defined nanowire systems, such as the In chains on Si(111) or the Au reconstructions on the terraced Si(553) and Si(557) surfaces. Therefore a weak coupling between the nanowires in these systems has to be concluded. However theory proposes another state in the perfect 1D limit, which is completely destroyed upon slight coupling to higher dimensions. In this so-called Tomonaga-Luttinger liquid (TLL) state, the quasiparticle description of the Fermi liquid breaks down. Since the interaction between the electrons is enhanced due to the strong confinement, only collective excitations are allowed. This leads to novel effects like spin charge separation, where spin and charge degrees of freedom are decoupled and allowed to travel independently along the 1D-chain. Such rare state has not been realized at a surface until today. This thesis uses a novel approach to realize nanowires with improved confinement by studying the Au reconstructed Ge(001) surface. A new cleaning procedure using piranha solution is presented, in order to prepare a clean and long-range ordered substrate. To ensure optimal growth of the Au nanowires the phase diagram is extensively studied by scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) and low energy electron diffraction (LEED). The structural elements of the chains are revealed and described in high detail. Remarkably a structural phase transition of the delicate wire structure is found to occur above room temperature. Due to the lack of energy gaps a Peierls transition can be excluded as its origin. The transition is rather determined as 3D Ising type and therefore includes the substrate as well. Two hallmark properties of a TLL are found in the Au/Ge(001) wires by spectroscopic studies: Power-law suppression of the density of states (DOS) and universal scaling. This impressively proves the existence of a TLL in these chains and opens up a gateway to an atomic playground. Local studies and manipulations of a TLL state become possible for the first time. These comprise (i) doping by alkaline atoms, (ii) studies on chain ends and (iii) tunable coupling between the chains by additional Au atoms. Most importantly these manipulations offer input and test for theoretical models and predictions, and are thereby ultimately advancing the field of correlated electrons.