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This thesis concerned the design and examination of a scaffold for tissue engineering applications. The template for the presented scaffold came from nature itself: the intercellular space in tissues that provides structure and support to the cells of the respective tissue, known as extracellular matrix (ECM). Fibres are a predominant characteristic feature of ECM, providing adhesion sites for cell-matrix interactions. In this dissertation a fibrous mesh was generated using the electrospinning technique to mimic the fibrous structure of the ECM. Two base polymers were explored: a biodegradable polyester, poly(D,L-lactide-co-glycolide); and a functional PEG-based star polymer, NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO). This topic was described in three major parts: the first part was materials based, concerning the chemical design and characterisation of the polymer scaffolds; the focus was then shifted to the cellular response to this fibrous scaffold; and finally the in vivo performance of the material was preliminarily assessed. The first steps towards an electrospun mesh started with adjusting the spinning parameters for the generation of homogeneous fibres. As reported in Chapter 3 a suitable setup configuration was on the one hand comprised of a spinning solution that consisted of 28.5 w/v% PLGA RG 504 and 6 w/v% NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO) in 450 µL acetone, 50 µL DMSO and 10 µL of an aqueous trifluoroacetic acid solution. On the other hand an ideal spinning behaviour was achieved at process parameters such as a flow rate of 0.5 mL/h, spinneret to collector distance of 12-16 cm and a voltage of 13 kV. The NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO) containing fibres proved to be highly hydrophilic as the functional additive was present on the fibre surface. Furthermore, the fibres featured a bulk degradation pattern as a consequence of the proportion of PLGA. Besides the morphologic similarity to ECM fibres, the functionality of the electrospun fibres is also decisive for a successful ECM mimicry. In Chapter 4, the passive as well as active functionality of the fibres was investigated. The fibres were required to be protein repellent to prevent an unspecific cell adhesion. This was proven as even 6.5 % sP(EO-stat-PO) in the PLGA fibres reduced any unspecific protein adsorption of bovine serum albumin and foetal calf serum to less than 1 %. However, avidin based proteins attached to the fibres. This adhesion process was avoided by an additional fibre surface treatment with glycidol. The active functionalisation of NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO)/PLGA fibres was investigated with two fluorescent dyes and biocytin. A threefold, chemically orthogonal, fibre modification was achieved with these dyes. The chapters about the chemical and mechanical properties laid the basis for the in vitro chapters where a specific fibre functionalisation with peptides was conducted to analyse the cell adhesion and biochemical expressions. Beginning with fibroblasts in Chapter 5 the focus was on the specific cell adhesion on the electrospun fibres. While NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO)/PLGA fibres without peptides did not allow any adhesion of fibroblasts, a fibre modification with GRGDS (an adhesion mediating peptide sequence) induced the adhesion and spreading of human dermal fibroblasts on the fibrous scaffolds. The control sequence GRGES that has no adhesion mediating qualities did not lead to any cell adhesion as observed on fibres without modifications. While the experiments of Chapter 5 were a proof-of-concept, in Chapter 6 a possible application in cartilage tissue engineering was examined. Therefore, primary human chondrocytes were seeded on fibrous scaffolds with various peptide sequences. Though the chondrocytes exhibited high viability on all scaffolds, an active interaction of cells and fibres was only found for the decorin derived sequence CGKLER. Live-cell-imaging revealed both cell attachment and migration within CGKLER-modified meshes. As chondrocytes undergo a de-differentiation towards a fibroblast-like phenotype, the chondrogenic re-differentiation on these scaffolds was investigated in a long term cell culture experiment of 28 days. Therefore, the glycosaminoglycan production was analysed as well as the mRNA expression of genes coding for collagen I and II, aggrecan and proteoglycan 4. In general only low amounts of the chondrogenic markers were measured, suggesting no chondrogenic differentiation. For conclusive evidence follow-up experiments are required that support or reject the findings. The success of an implant for tissue engineering relies not only on the response of the targeted cell type but also on the immune reaction caused by leukocytes. Hence, Chapter 7 dealt with primary human macrophages and their behaviour and phenotype on two-dimensional (2D) surfaces compared to three-dimensional (3D) fibrous substrates. It was found that the general non-adhesiveness of NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO) surfaces and fibres does not apply to macrophages. The cells aligned along the fibres on surfaces or resided in the pores of the meshes. On flat surfaces without 3D structure the macrophages showed a retarded adhesion kinetic accompanied with a high migratory activity indicating their search for a topographical feature to adhere to. Moreover, a detailed investigation of cell surface markers and chemokine signalling revealed that macrophages on 2D surfaces exhibited surface markers indicating a healing phenotype while the chemokine release suggested a pro-inflammatory phenotype. Interestingly, the opposite situation was found on 3D fibrous substrates with pro-inflammatory surface markers and pro-angiogenic cytokine release. As the immune response largely depends on cellular communication, it was concluded that the NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO)/PLGA fibres induce an adequate immune response with promising prospects to be used in a scaffold for tissue engineering. The final chapter of this thesis reports on a first in vivo study conducted with the presented electrospun fibres. Here, the fibres were combined with a polypropylene mesh for the treatment of diaphragmatic hernias in a rabbit model. Two scaffold series were described that differed in the overall surface morphology: while the fibres of Series A were incorporated into a thick gel of NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO), the scaffolds of Series B featured only a thin hydrogel layer so that the overall fibrous structure could be retained. After four months in vivo the treated defects of the diaphragm were significantly smaller and filled mainly with scar tissue. Thick granulomas occurred on scaffolds of Series A while the implants of Series B did not induce any granuloma formation. As a consequence of the generally positive outcome of this study, the constructs were enhanced with a drug release system in a follow-up project. The incorporated drug was the MMP-inhibitor Ilomastat which is intended to reduce the formation of scar tissue. In conclusion, the simple and straight forward fabrication, the threefold functionalisation possibility and general versatile applicability makes the meshes of NCO-sP(EO-stat-PO)/PLGA fibres a promising candidate to be applied in tissue engineering scaffolds in the future.
Non-contact, Label-free Monitoring of Cells and Extracellular Matrix using Raman Spectroscopy
(2012)
Non-destructive, non-contact and label-free technologies to monitor cell and tissue cultures are needed in the field of biomedical research.1-5 However, currently available routine methods require processing steps and alter sample integrity. Raman spectroscopy is a fast method that enables the measurement of biological samples without the need for further processing steps. This laser-based technology detects the inelastic scattering of monochromatic light.6 As every chemical vibration is assigned to a specific Raman band (wavenumber in cm-1), each biological sample features a typical spectral pattern due to their inherent biochemical composition.7-9 Within Raman spectra, the peak intensities correlate with the amount of the present molecular bonds.1 Similarities and differences of the spectral data sets can be detected by employing a multivariate analysis (e.g. principal component analysis (PCA)).10
Here, we perform Raman spectroscopy of living cells and native tissues. Cells are either seeded on glass bottom dishes or kept in suspension under normal cell culture conditions (37 °C, 5% CO2) before measurement. Native tissues are dissected and stored in phosphate buffered saline (PBS) at 4 °C prior measurements. Depending on our experimental set up, we then either focused on the cell nucleus or extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins such as elastin and collagen. For all studies, a minimum of 30 cells or 30 random points of interest within the ECM are measured. Data processing steps included background subtraction and normalization.
Cancer is one of the leading causes of death worldwide. Current therapeutic strategies are predominantly developed in 2D culture systems, which inadequately reflect physiological conditions in vivo. Biological 3D matrices provide cells an environment in which cells can self-organize, allowing the study of tissue organization and cell differentiation. Such scaffolds can be seeded with a mixture of different cell types to study direct 3D cell-cell-interactions. To mimic the 3D complexity of cancer tumors, our group has developed a 3D in vitro tumor test system.
Our 3D tissue test system models the in vivo situation of malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors (MPNSTs), which we established with our decellularized porcine jejunal segment derived biological vascularized scaffold (BioVaSc). In our model, we reseeded a modified BioVaSc matrix with primary fibroblasts, microvascular endothelial cells (mvECs) and the S462 tumor cell line For static culture, the vascular structure of the BioVaSc is removed and the remaining scaffold is cut open on one side (Small Intestinal Submucosa SIS-Muc). The resulting matrix is then fixed between two metal rings (cell crowns).
Another option is to culture the cell-seeded SIS-Muc in a flow bioreactor system that exposes the cells to shear stress. Here, the bioreactor is connected to a peristaltic pump in a self-constructed incubator. A computer regulates the arterial oxygen and nutrient supply via parameters such as blood pressure, temperature, and flow rate. This setup allows for a dynamic culture with either pressure-regulated pulsatile or constant flow.
In this study, we could successfully establish both a static and dynamic 3D culture system for MPNSTs. The ability to model cancer tumors in a more natural 3D environment will enable the discovery, testing, and validation of future pharmaceuticals in a human-like model.
The skeleton is a preferred homing site for breast cancer metastasis. To date, treatment options for patients with bone metastases are mostly palliative and the disease is still incurable. Indeed, key mechanisms involved in breast cancer osteotropism are still only partially understood due to the lack of suitable animal models to mimic metastasis of human tumor cells to a human bone microenvironment. In the presented study, we investigate the use of a human tissue-engineered bone construct to develop a humanized xenograft model of breast cancer-induced bone metastasis in a murine host. Primary human osteoblastic cell-seeded melt electrospun scaffolds in combination with recombinant human bone morphogenetic protein 7 were implanted subcutaneously in non-obese diabetic/severe combined immunodeficient mice. The tissue-engineered constructs led to the formation of a morphologically intact 'organ' bone incorporating a high amount of mineralized tissue, live osteocytes and bone marrow spaces. The newly formed bone was largely humanized, as indicated by the incorporation of human bone cells and human-derived matrix proteins. After intracardiac injection, the dissemination of luciferase-expressing human breast cancer cell lines to the humanized bone ossicles was detected by bioluminescent imaging. Histological analysis revealed the presence of metastases with clear osteolysis in the newly formed bone. Thus, human tissue-engineered bone constructs can be applied efficiently as a target tissue for human breast cancer cells injected into the blood circulation and replicate the osteolytic phenotype associated with breast cancer-induced bone lesions. In conclusion, we have developed an appropriate model for investigation of species-specific mechanisms of human breast cancer-related bone metastasis in vivo.
Bone metastasis is a frequent and life-threatening complication of breast cancer. The molecular mechanisms supporting the establishment of breast cancer cells in the skeleton are still not fully understood, which may be attributed to the lack of suitable models that interrogate interactions between human breast cancer cells and the bone microenvironment. Although it is well-known that integrins mediate adhesion of malignant cells to bone extracellular matrix, their role during bone colonization remains unclear. Here, the role of β1 integrins in bone colonization was investigated using tissue-engineered humanized in vitro and in vivo bone models. In vitro, bone-metastatic breast cancer cells with suppressed integrin β1 expression showed reduced attachment, spreading, and migration within human bone matrix compared to control cells. Cell proliferation in vitro was not affected by β1 integrin knockdown, yet tumor growth in vivo within humanized bone microenvironments was significantly inhibited upon β1 integrin suppression, as revealed by quantitative in/ex vivo fluorescence imaging and histological analysis. Tumor cells invaded bone marrow spaces in the humanized bone and formed osteolytic lesions; osteoclastic bone resorption was, however, not reduced by β1 integrin knockdown. Taken together, we demonstrate that β1 integrins have a pivotal role in bone colonization using unique tissue-engineered humanized bone models.
Elastic fibers are essential for the proper function of organs including cardiovascular tissues such as heart valves and blood vessels. Although (tropo)elastin production in a tissue-engineered construct has previously been described, the assembly to functional elastic fibers in vitro using human cells has been highly challenging. In the present study, we seeded primary isolated human vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) onto 3D electrospun scaffolds and exposed them to defined laminar shear stress using a customized bioreactor system. Increased elastin expression followed by elastin deposition onto the electrospun scaffolds, as well as on newly formed fibers, was observed after six days. Most interestingly, we identified the successful deposition of elastogenesis-associated proteins, including fibrillin-1 and -2, fibulin-4 and -5, fibronectin, elastin microfibril interface located protein 1 (EMILIN-1) and lysyl oxidase (LOX) within our engineered constructs. Ultrastructural analyses revealed a developing extracellular matrix (ECM) similar to native human fetal tissue, which is composed of collagens, microfibrils and elastin. To conclude, the combination of a novel dynamic flow bioreactor and an electrospun hybrid polymer scaffold allowed the production and assembly of an elastic fiber-containing ECM.
The aim is to evaluate the effect of modifying poly[(L-lactide)-co-(epsilon-caprolactone)] scaffolds (PLCL) with nanodiamonds (nDP) or with nDP+physisorbed BMP-2 (nDP+BMP-2) on in vivo host tissue response and degradation. The scaffolds are implanted subcutaneously in Balb/c mice and retrieved after 1, 8, and 27 weeks. Molecular weight analysis shows that modified scaffolds degrade faster than the unmodified. Gene analysis at week 1 shows highest expression of proinflammatory markers around nDP scaffolds; although the presence of inflammatory cells and foreign body giant cells is more prominent around the PLCL. Tissue regeneration markers are highly expressed in the nDP+BMP-2 scaffolds at week 8. A fibrous capsule is detectable by week 8, thinnest around nDP scaffolds and at week 27 thickest around PLCL scaffolds. mRNA levels of ALP, COL1 alpha 2, and ANGPT1 are signifi cantly upregulating in the nDP+BMP-2 scaffolds at week 1 with ectopic bone seen at week 8. Even when almost 90% of the scaffold is degraded at week 27, nDP are observable at implantation areas without adverse effects. In conclusion, modifying PLCL scaffolds with nDP does not aggravate the host response and physisorbed BMP-2 delivery attenuates infl ammation while lowering the dose of BMP-2 to a relatively safe and economical level.
Tissue-engineered skin equivalents mimic key aspects of the human skin, and can thus be employed as wound coverage for large skin defects or as in vitro test systems as an alternative to animal models. However, current skin equivalents lack a functional vasculature limiting clinical and research applications. This study demonstrates the generation of a vascularized skin equivalent with a perfused vascular network by combining a biological vascularized scaffold (BioVaSc) based on a decellularized segment of a porcine jejunum and a tailored bioreactor system. Briefly, the BioVaSc was seeded with human fibroblasts, keratinocytes, and human microvascular endothelial cells. After 14 days at the air-liquid interface, hematoxylin & eosin and immunohistological staining revealed a specific histological architecture representative of the human dermis and epidermis including a papillary-like architecture at the dermal-epidermal-junction. The formation of the skin barrier was measured non-destructively using impedance spectroscopy. Additionally, endothelial cells lined the walls of the formed vessels that could be perfused with a physiological volume flow. Due to the presence of a complex in-vivo-like vasculature, the here shown skin equivalent has the potential for skin grafting and represents a sophisticated in vitro model for dermatological research.
In order to mimic the extracellular matrix for tissue engineering, recent research approaches often involve 3D printing or electrospinning of fibres to scaffolds as cell carrier material. Within this thesis, a micron fibre printing process, called melt electrospinning writing (MEW), combining both additive manufacturing and electrospinning, has been investigated and improved. Thus, a unique device was developed for accurate process control and manufacturing of high quality constructs. Thereby, different studies could be conducted in order to understand the electrohydrodynamic printing behaviour of different medically relevant thermoplastics as well as to characterise the influence of MEW on the resulting scaffold performance.
For reproducible scaffold printing, a commonly occurring processing instability was investigated and defined as pulsing, or in extreme cases as long beading. Here, processing analysis could be performed with the aim to overcome those instabilities and prevent the resulting manufacturing issues. Two different biocompatible polymers were utilised for this study: poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) as the only material available for MEW until then and poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline) for the first time. A hypothesis including the dependency of pulsing regarding involved mass flows regulated by the feeding pressure and the electrical field strength could be presented. Further, a guide via fibre diameter quantification was established to assess and accomplish high quality printing of scaffolds for subsequent research tasks.
By following a combined approach including small sized spinnerets, small flow rates and high field strengths, PCL fibres with submicron-sized fibre diameters (fØ = 817 ± 165 nm) were deposited to defined scaffolds. The resulting material characteristics could be investigated regarding molecular orientation and morphological aspects. Thereby, an alignment and isotropic crystallinity was observed that can be attributed to the distinct acceleration of the solidifying jet in the electrical field and by the collector uptake. Resulting submicron fibres formed accurate but mechanically sensitive structures requiring further preparation for a suitable use in cell biology. To overcome this handling issue, a coating procedure, by using hydrophilic and cross-linkable star-shaped molecules for preparing fibre adhesive but cell repellent collector surfaces, was used.
Printing PCL fibre patterns below the critical translation speed (CTS) revealed the opportunity to manufacture sinusoidal shaped fibres analogously to those observed using purely viscous fluids falling on a moving belt. No significant influence of the high voltage field during MEW processing could be observed on the buckling phenomenon. A study on the sinusoidal geometry revealed increasing peak-to-peak values and decreasing wavelengths as a function of decreasing collector speeds sc between CTS > sc ≥ 2/3 CTS independent of feeding pressures. Resulting scaffolds printed at 100 %, 90 %, 80 % and 70 % of CTS exhibited significantly different tensile properties, foremost regarding Young’s moduli (E = 42 ± 7 MPa to 173 ± 22 MPa at 1 – 3 % strain). As known from literature, a changed morphology and mechanical environment can impact cell performance substantially leading to a new opportunity of tailoring TE scaffolds.
Further, poly(L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone-co-acryloyl carbonate) as well as poly(ε-caprolactone-co-acryloyl carbonate) (PCLAC) copolymers could be used for MEW printing. Those exhibit the opportunity for UV-initiated radical cross-linking in a post-processing step leading to significantly increased mechanical characteristics. Here, single fibres of the polymer composed of 90 mol.% CL and 10 mol.% AC showed a considerable maximum tensile strength of σmax = 53 ± 16 MPa. Furthermore, sinusoidal meanders made of PCLAC yielded a specific tensile stress-strain characteristic mimicking the qualitative behaviour of tendons or ligaments. Cell viability by L929 murine fibroblasts and live/dead staining with human mesenchymal stem cells revealed a promising biomaterial behaviour pointing out MEW printed PCLAC scaffolds as promising choice for medical repair of load-bearing soft tissue.
Indeed, one apparent drawback, the small throughput similar to other AM methods, may still prevent MEW’s industrial application yet. However, ongoing research focusses on enlargement of manufacturing speed with the clear perspective of relevant improvement. Thereby, the utilisation of large spinneret sizes may enable printing of high volume rates, while downsizing the resulting fibre diameter via electrical field and mechanical stretching by the collector uptake. Using this approach, limitations of FDM by small nozzle sizes could be overcome. Thinking visionary, such printing devices could be placed in hospitals for patient-specific printing-on-demand therapies one day. Taking the evolved high deposition precision combined with the unique small fibre diameter sizes into account, technical processing of high performance membranes, filters or functional surface finishes also stands to reason.
Highly invasive animal based test procedures for risk assessment such as the Draize eye test are under increasing criticism due to poor transferability for the human organism and animal-welfare concerns. However, besides all efforts, the Draize eye test is still not completely replaced by alternative animal-free methods. To develop an in vitro test to identify all categories of eye irritation, we combined organotypic cornea models based on primary human cells with an electrical readout system that measures the impedance of the test models. First, we showed that employing a primary human cornea epithelial cell based model is advantageous in native marker expression to the primary human epidermal keratinocytes derived models. Secondly, by employing a non-destructive measuring system based on impedance spectroscopy, we could increase the sensitivity of the test system. Thereby, all globally harmonized systems categories of eye irritation could be identified by repeated measurements over a period of 7 days. Based on a novel prediction model we achieved an accuracy of 78% with a reproducibility of 88.9% to determine all three categories of eye irritation in one single test. This could pave the way according to the 3R principle to replace the Draize eye test.