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Institute
- Institut für Klinische Neurobiologie (152) (remove)
In the mammalian brain, the neurotrophin brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) has emerged as a key factor for synaptic refinement, plasticity and learning. Although BDNF-induced signaling cascades are well known, the spatial aspects of the synaptic BDNF localization remained unclear. Recent data provide strong evidence for an exclusive presynaptic location and anterograde secretion of endogenous BDNF at synapses of the hippocampal circuit. In contrast, various studies using BDNF overexpression in cultured hippocampal neurons support the idea that postsynaptic elements and other dendritic structures are the preferential sites of BDNF localization and release. In this study we used rigorously tested anti-BDNF antibodies and achieved a dense labeling of endogenous BDNF close to synapses. Confocal microscopy showed natural BDNF close to many, but not all glutamatergic synapses, while neither GABAergic synapses nor postsynaptic structures carried a typical synaptic BDNF label. To visualize the BDNF distribution within the fine structure of synapses, we implemented super resolution fluorescence imaging by direct stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy (dSTORM). Two-color dSTORM images of neurites were acquired with a spatial resolution of ~20 nm. At this resolution, the synaptic scaffold proteins Bassoon and Homer exhibit hallmarks of mature synapses and form juxtaposed bars, separated by a synaptic cleft. BDNF imaging signals form granule-like clusters with a mean size of ~60 nm and are preferentially found within the fine structure of the glutamatergic presynapse. Individual glutamatergic presynapses carried up to 90% of the synaptic BDNF immunoreactivity, and only a minor fraction of BDNF molecules was found close to the postsynaptic bars. Our data proof that hippocampal neurons are able to enrich and store high amounts of BDNF in small granules within the mature glutamatergic presynapse, at a principle site of synaptic plasticity.
Neurotrophin signaling via receptor tyrosine kinases is essential for the development and function of the nervous system in vertebrates. TrkB activation and signaling show substantial differences to other receptor tyrosine kinases of the Trk family that mediate the responses to nerve growth factor and neurotrophin-3. Growing evidence suggests that TrkB cell surface expression is highly regulated and determines the sensitivity of neurons to brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). This translocation of TrkB depends on co-factors and modulators of cAMP levels, N-glycosylation, and receptor transactivation. This process can occur in very short time periods and the resulting rapid modulation of target cell sensitivity to BDNF could represent a mechanism for fine-tuning of synaptic plasticity and communication in complex neuronal networks. This review focuses on those modulatory mechanisms in neurons that regulate responsiveness to BDNF via control of TrkB surface expression.
Objective
To determine whether IgG subclasses of antiparanodal autoantibodies are related to disease course and treatment response in acute- to subacute-onset neuropathies, we retrospectively screened 161 baseline serum/CSF samples and 66 follow-up serum/CSF samples.
Methods
We used ELISA and immunofluorescence assays to detect antiparanodal IgG and their subclasses and titers in serum/CSF of patients with Guillain-Barre syndrome (GBS), recurrent GBS (R-GBS), Miller-Fisher syndrome, and acute- to subacute-onset chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathy (A-CIDP). We evaluated clinical data retrospectively.
Results
We detected antiparanodal autoantibodies with a prevalence of 4.3% (7/161), more often in A-CIDP (4/23, 17.4%) compared with GBS (3/114, 2.6%). Longitudinal subclass analysis in the patients with GBS revealed IgG2/3 autoantibodies against Caspr-1 and against anti-contactin-1/Caspr-1, which disappeared at remission. At disease onset, patients with A-CIDP had IgG2/3 anti-Caspr-1 and anti-contactin-1/Caspr-1 or IgG4 anti-contactin-1 antibodies, IgG3 being associated with good response to IV immunoglobulins (IVIg). In the chronic phase of disease, IgG subclass of one patient with A-CIDP switched from IgG3 to IgG4.
Conclusion
Our data (1) confirm and extend previous observations that antiparanodal IgG2/3 but not IgG4 antibodies can occur in acute-onset neuropathies manifesting as monophasic GBS, (2) suggest association of IgG3 to a favorable response to IVIg, and (3) lend support to the hypothesis that in some patients, an IgG subclass switch from IgG3 to IgG4 may be the correlate of a secondary progressive or relapsing course following a GBS-like onset.
Ligand-binding of Cys-loop receptors is determined by N-terminal extracellular loop structures from the plus as well as from the minus side of two adjacent subunits in the pentameric receptor complex. An aromatic residue in loop B of the glycine receptor (GIyR) undergoes direct interaction with the incoming ligand via a cation-π interaction. Recently, we showed that mutated residues in loop B identified from human patients suffering from hyperekplexia disturb ligand-binding. Here, we exchanged the affected human residues by amino acids found in related members of the Cys-loop receptor family to determine the effects of side chain volume for ion channel properties. GIyR variants were characterized in vitro following transfection into cell lines in order to analyze protein expression, trafficking, degradation and ion channel function. GIyR α1 G160 mutations significantly decrease glycine potency arguing for a positional effect on neighboring aromatic residues and consequently glycine-binding within the ligand-binding pocket. Disturbed glycinergic inhibition due to T162 α1 mutations is an additive effect of affected biogenesis and structural changes within the ligand-binding site. Protein trafficking from the ER toward the ER-Golgi intermediate compartment, the secretory Golgi pathways and finally the cell surface is largely diminished, but still sufficient to deliver ion channels that are functional at least at high glycine concentrations. The majority of T162 mutant protein accumulates in the ER and is delivered to ER-associated proteasomal degradation. Hence, G160 is an important determinant during glycine binding. In contrast, 1162 affects primarily receptor biogenesis whereas exchanges in functionality are secondary effects thereof.
Die spinale Muskelatrophie (SMA) ist eine monogenetische Erkrankung, bei der es durch den Verlust des SMN Proteins zur Degeneration der α-Motoneurone im Rückenmark kommt. Abhängig vom Schweregrad zeigen die Patienten bereits innerhalb der ersten Lebensmonate ausgeprägte Lähmungen der Skelettmuskulatur und eine Zwerchfellparese einhergehend mit einer reduzierten Lebenserwartung. Mithilfe von Mausmodellen für die SMA konnte gezeigt werden, dass der Motoneuronenverlust bei Smn-defizienten Mäusen mit Störungen der Neurotransmission an der motorischen Endplatte und mit Differenzierungsstörungen der Motoneurone einhergeht. Die Differenzierungs-störungen primärer Smn-defizienter Motoneurone sind eng gekoppelt mit einer verminderten Clusterbildung spannungsabhängiger Kalziumkanäle im distalen axonalen Bereich. Dies wiederum führt zu einer verminderten Frequenz spontaner Kalziumeinströme am Axonterminus und hat eine veränderte axonale Elongation zur Folge.
Es wurden folgende Aspekte in Bezug auf die Verstärkung und die Induktion spontaner Kalziumeinströme in Mausmodellen für spinale Muskelatrophien in dieser Arbeit adressiert:
1) Lassen sich spontane Kalziumeinströme in Smn-defizienten Motoneuronen durch die externe Applikation von Kalziumkanalagonisten verstärken?
2) Sind spontane Kalziumeinströme in primären Motoneuronen durch den Brain-derived-neurotrophic-factor (BDNF) induzierbar?
3) Zeigen primäre Motoneurone eines Mausmodells für spinale Muskelatrophie mit Ateminsuffizienz Typ 1 (SMARD1) ebenfalls veränderte Kalziumtransienten?
Die Ergebnisse meiner Arbeit zeigen, dass durch den Kalziumkanalagonisten R-Roscovitine die Frequenz der spontanen Kalziumeinströme im distalen Axon von Smn-defizienten Motoneuronen signifikant erhöht wird. Dies hat wiederum einen regulierenden Effekt auf die Differenzierung der SMA Motoneurone zur Folge. Smn-defiziente Motoneurone zeigen somit keine Unterschiede mehr in Bezug auf Axonlängen und Wachstumskegelflächen im Vergleich zu Kontrollzellen. Für R-
10
Roscovitine ist neben der agonistischen Wirkung am Kalziumkanal auch ein inhibitorischer Effekt auf die Cyclin-abhängige Kinase 5 beschrieben. Es konnte jedoch gezeigt werden, dass die erhöhten Kalziumtransienten unter der Behandlung mit R-Roscovitine durch eine direkte Bindung an die Cav2 Kalziumkanäle verursacht werden und nicht durch eine Cdk5 Blockade. Dafür spricht die schnelle und reversible Wirkung von R-Roscovitine, sowie die Aufhebung des R-Roscovitines Effekts bei gleichzeitiger Gabe des Cav2.2 Antagonisten ω-Conotoxin MVIIC.
Der zweite Aspekt dieser Arbeit behandelt den Einfluss der neurotrophen Faktoren BDNF, CNTF und GDNF auf die Kalziumtransienten am Wachstumskegel wildtypischer Motoneurone. Der Vergleich der neurotrophen Faktoren zeigt, dass nur BDNF eine induzierende Wirkung auf spontane Kalziumtransienten am Wachstumskegel hat.
Der letzte Abschnitt dieser Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit den Kalziumtransienten bei Motoneuronen aus dem Nmd2J (SMARD1) Mausmodell. Die SMARD1 gilt als eigenständige Form der spinalen Muskelatrophien mit unterschiedlicher Genetik und unterschiedlichen klinischen Merkmalen. Die Motoneurone weisen in Bezug auf die Kalziumtransienten keine Unterschiede zwischen Wildtyp und Nmd2J Mutante auf. Es ergibt sich somit kein Hinweis darauf, dass die Degeneration der Motoneurone bei der SMARD1 von einer Störung der Kalziumhomöostase im distalen axonalen Bereich ausgeht.
We showed previously that oligodendrocytes and their precursors require continuous signalling by protein trophic factors to avoid programmed cell death in culture. Here we show that three classes of such trophic factors promote oligodendrocyte survival in vitro: (1) insulin and insulin-like growth factors (IGFs), (2) neurotrophins, particularly neurotrophin-3 (NT -3), and (3) ciliary-neurotrophic factor (CNTF), leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) and interleukin 6 (IL-6). A single factor, or combinations of factors within the same class, promote only short-term survival of oligodendrocytes and their precursors, while combinations of factors from different classes promote survival additively. Long-term survival of oligodendrocytes in vitro requires at least one factor from each class, suggesting that multiple signals may be required for long-term oligodendrocyte survival in vivo. We also show that CNTF promotes oligodendrocyte survival in vivo, that platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) can promote the survival of oligodendrocyte precursors in vitro by acting on a novel, very high affinity PDGF receptor, and that, in addition to its effect on survival, NT-3 is a potent mitogen for oligodendrocyte precursor cells.
Diabetic polyneuropathy (DPN) is the most common complication in diabetes and can be painful in up to 26% of all diabetic patients. Peripheral nerves are shielded by the blood-nerve barrier (BNB) consisting of the perineurium and endoneurial vessels. So far, there are conflicting results regarding the role and function of the BNB in the pathophysiology of DPN. In this study, we analyzed the spatiotemporal tight junction protein profile, barrier permeability, and vessel-associated macrophages in Wistar rats with streptozotocin-induced DPN. In these rats, mechanical hypersensitivity developed after 2 weeks and loss of motor function after 8 weeks, while the BNB and the blood-DRG barrier were leakier for small, but not for large molecules after 8 weeks only. The blood-spinal cord barrier remained sealed throughout the observation period. No gross changes in tight junction protein or cytokine expression were observed in all barriers to blood. However, expression of Cldn1 mRNA in perineurium was specifically downregulated in conjunction with weaker vessel-associated macrophage shielding of the BNB. Our results underline the role of specific tight junction proteins and BNB breakdown in DPN maintenance and differentiate DPN from traumatic nerve injury. Targeting claudins and sealing the BNB could stabilize pain and prevent further nerve damage.
Aufklärung des Pathomechanismus bei der pmn-Mausmutante, einem Mausmodell für Motoneuronerkrankungen
(2007)
Die pmn-Maus dient als Modell für degenerative Motoneuronerkrankungen: Während heterozygote Mäuse klinisch unauffällig sind, entwickeln homozygote einige Anzeichen, wie man sie auch bei humanen Motoneuronerkrankungen findet. Ab der 2. postnatalen Woche weisen sie eine progrediente Schwäche der Hinterläufe auf. Innerhalb kurzer Zeit sind auch andere Muskelgruppen betroffen, was zwischen der 4. und 6. postnatalen Woche zum Tod durch Atemversagen führt. Verantwortlich für die Erkrankung der pmn-Mäuse ist eine Punktmutation im Tubulin-spezifischen Chaperon E (tbce) Gen, die zu einem Aminosäureaustausch an einer evolutionär konservierten Aminosäure im TBCE-Protein führt. TBCE wird ubiquitär exprimiert und spielt eine Rolle bei der Assemblierung der Mikrotubuli. Phänotypisch sind von der Mutation spezifisch Motoneurone betroffen. Nach der Herstellung und Charakterisierung eines Antiserums gegen TBCE war es möglich, nach Unterschieden zwischen pmn-mutierten und wildtypischen Motoneuronen hinsichtlich der Stabilität und der subzellulären Lokalisation des TBCE Proteins zu suchen. Western Blot Analysen mit Rückenmarkslysaten von vier Wochen alten pmn-Mäusen zeigen eine deutliche Reduktion der TBCE-Expression. Mittels Immunfluoreszenz waren in isolierten embryonalen Motoneuronen indes keine Unterschiede hinsichtlich der Expressionsstärke und der subzellulären Lokalisation festzustellen. Das TBCE-Protein wird überwiegend im Zellsoma exprimiert und befindet sich dort im Golgi-Apparat und an den Centrosomen, die als Generatoren der axonalen Mikrotubuli angesehen werden. Obwohl mittels Immunfluoreszenz zu diesem Zeitpunkt keine Unterschiede detektierbar sind, weisen die pmn-mutierten Motoneurone nach sieben Tagen in Kultur einige axonale Pathologien auf, wenn sie in Gegenwart des neurotrophen Faktors BDNF kultiviert werden: Das Längenwachstum der Axone ist deutlich reduziert und entlang der Axone finden sich zahlreiche axonale Schwellungen mit Proteinaggregaten. Elektronenmikroskopisch findet sich eine Reduktion der Mikrotubulianzahl im proximalen Axonabschnitt, während die medialen und distalen Teile eine unveränderte Anzahl an Mikrotubuli aufweisen. Parallel findet sich in allen Axonabschnitten der pmn-mutierten Motoneurone eine deutliche Zunahme an Neurofilamenten. Neben den morphologischen Veränderungen weisen die Motoneurone aus pmn-Mäusen zu diesem Zeitpunkt auch eine Störung im axonalen Transport der Mitochondrien auf, die in den Axonen saltatorisch und bidirektional entlang von Mikrotubuli transportiert werden, auf. So ist die Anzahl stationärer Mitochondrien in pmn-mutierten Motoneuronen signifikant erhöht, während die Anzahl an transportierten Mitochondrien und deren maximale Transportgeschwindigkeit reduziert ist. Die morphologischen Veränderungen und die Störungen im axonalen Transport können kompensiert werden, wenn die pmn-mutierten Motoneurone statt mit BDNF mit dem neurotrophen Faktor CNTF kultiviert werden. Die Effekte von CNTF auf das Längenwachstum der Axone ist STAT3 vermittelt, da pmn-mutierte Motoneurone mit einer STAT3-Defizienz keine Reaktion mehr auf die Gabe von CNTF zeigen. Da STAT3 direkt mit Stathmin interagieren kann und dessen destabilisierende Wirkung auf Mikrotubuli dadurch verhindert, wurde angenommen, dass die STAT3 vermittelten CNTF Effekte auf eine lokale Wirkung von STAT3 in Axonen zurückzuführen ist. Diese Hypothese wird dadurch gestützt, dass die Herunterregulation der Stathmin Expression in pmn-mutierten Motoneuronen den gleichen Effekt auf das Längenwachstum zeigt, wie eine CNTF Gabe während der Kultivierung.
The progressive motor neuropathy (PMN) mouse is a model of an inherited motor neuropathy disease with progressive neurodegeneration. Axon degeneration associates with homozygous mutations of the TBCE gene encoding the tubulin chaperone E protein. TBCE is responsible for the correct dimerization of alpha and beta-tubulin. Strikingly, the PMN mouse also develops a progressive hearing loss after normal hearing onset, characterized by degeneration of the auditory nerve and outer hair cell (OHC) loss. However, the development of this neuronal and cochlear pathology is not fully understood yet. Previous studies with pegylated insulin-like growth factor 1 (peg-IGF-1) treatment in this mouse model have been shown to expand lifespan, weight, muscle strength, and motor coordination. Accordingly, peg-IGF-1 was evaluated for an otoprotective effect. We investigated the effect of peg-IGF-1 on the auditory system by treatment starting at postnatal day 15 (p15). Histological analysis revealed positive effects on OHC synapses of medial olivocochlear (MOC) neuronal fibers and a short-term attenuation of OHC loss. Peg-IGF-1 was able to conditionally restore the disorganization of OHC synapses and maintain the provision of cholinergic acetyltransferase in presynapses. To assess auditory function, frequency-specific auditory brainstem responses and distortion product otoacoustic emissions were recorded in animals on p21 and p28. However, despite the positive effect on MOC fibers and OHC, no restoration of hearing could be achieved. The present work demonstrates that the synaptic pathology of efferent MOC fibers in PMN mice represents a particular form of “efferent auditory neuropathy.” Peg-IGF-1 showed an otoprotective effect by preventing the degeneration of OHCs and efferent synapses. However, enhanced efforts are needed to optimize the treatment to obtain detectable improvements in hearing performances.