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There is a specialized niche for the electrohydrodynamic jetting of melts, from biomedical products to filtration and soft matter applications. The next frontier includes optics, microfluidics, flexible electronic devices, and soft network composites in biomaterial science and soft robotics. The recent emphasis on reproducibly direct‐writing continual molten jets has enabled a spectrum of contemporary microscale 3D objects to be fabricated. One strong suit of melt processing is the capacity for the jet to solidify rapidly into a fiber, thus fixing a particular structure into position. The ability to direct‐write complex and multiscaled architectures and structures has greatly contributed to a large number of recent studies, explicitly, toward fiber–hydrogel composites and fugitive inks, and has expanded into several biomedical applications such as cartilage, skin, periosteum, and cardiovascular tissue engineering. Following the footsteps of a publication that summarized melt electrowriting literature up to 2015, the most recent literature from then until now is reviewed to provide a continuous and comprehensive timeline that demonstrates the latest advances as well as new perspectives for this emerging technology.
Melt electrowriting (MEW) is an additive manufacturing technology that is recently used to fabricate voluminous scaffolds for biomedical applications. In this study, MEW is adapted for the seeding of multicellular spheroids, which permits the easy handling as a single sheet-like tissue-scaffold construct. Spheroids are made from adipose-derived stromal cells (ASCs). Poly(ε-caprolactone) is processed via MEW into scaffolds with box-structured pores, readily tailorable to spheroid size, using 13–15 µm diameter fibers. Two 7–8 µm diameter “catching fibers” near the bottom of the scaffold are threaded through each pore (360 and 380 µm) to prevent loss of spheroids during seeding. Cell viability remains high during the two week culture period, while the differentiation of ASCs into the adipogenic lineage is induced. Subsequent sectioning and staining of the spheroid-scaffold construct can be readily performed and accumulated lipid droplets are observed, while upregulation of molecular markers associated with successful differentiation is demonstrated. Tailoring MEW scaffolds with pores allows the simultaneous seeding of high numbers of spheroids at a time into a construct that can be handled in culture and may be readily transferred to other sites for use as implants or tissue models.
This study approaches the accurate continuous direct-writing onto a cylindrical collector from a mathematical perspective, taking into account the winding angle, cylinder diameter and length required for the final 3D printed tube. Using an additive manufacturing process termed melt electrowriting (MEW), porous tubes intended for tissue engineering applications are fabricated from medical-grade poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL), validating the mathematically-derived method. For the fabricated tubes in this study, the pore size, winding angle and printed length can all be planned in advance and manufactured as designed. The physical dimensions of the tubes matched theoretical predictions and mechanical testing performed demonstrated that variations in the tubular morphology have a direct impact on their strength. MEWTubes, the web-based application developed and described here, is a particularly useful tool for planning the complex continuous direct writing path required for MEW onto a rotating, cylindrical build surface.
Additive manufacturing or 3D printing as an umbrella term for various materials processing methods has distinct advantages over many other processing methods, including the ability to generate highly complex shapes and designs. However, the performance of any produced part not only depends on the material used and its shape, but is also critically dependent on its surface properties. Important features, such as wetting or fouling, critically depend mainly on the immediate surface energy. To gain control over the surface chemistry post-processing modifications are generally necessary, since it′s not a feature of additive manufacturing. Here, we report on the use of initiator and catalyst-free photografting and photopolymerization for the hydrophilic modification of microfiber scaffolds obtained from hydrophobic medical-grade poly(ε-caprolactone) via melt-electrowriting. Contact angle measurements and Raman spectroscopy confirms the formation of a more hydrophilic coating of poly(2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate). Apart from surface modification, we also observe bulk polymerization, which is expected for this method, and currently limits the controllability of this procedure.
Melt electrowriting, a high‐resolution additive manufacturing technology, has so far been developed with vertical stacking of fiber layers, with a printing trajectory that is constant for each layer. In this work, microscale layer shifting is introduced through deliberately offsetting the printing trajectory for each printed layer. Inaccuracies during the printing of sinusoidal walls are corrected via layer shifting, resulting in accurate control of their geometry and mechanical properties. Furthermore, more substantial layer shifting allows stacking of fiber layers in a horizontal manner, overcoming the electrostatic autofocusing effect that favors vertical layer stacking. Novel nonlinear geometries, such as overhangs, wall texturing and branching, and smooth and abrupt changes in printing trajectory are presented, demonstrating the flexibility of the layer shifting approach beyond the state‐of‐the‐art. The practice of microscale layer shifting for melt electrowriting enables more complex geometries that promise to have a profound impact on the development of products in a broad range of applications.
Poly(vinylidene fluoride-co-trifluoroethylene) (P(VDF-co-TrFE)) is an electroactive polymer with growing interest for applications in biomedical materials and flexible electronics. In this study, a solvent-free additive manufacturing technique called melt electrowriting (MEW) has been utilized to fabricate well-defined microperiodic structures of the copolymer (P(VDF-co-TrFE)). MEW of the highly viscous polymer melt was initiated using a heated collector at temperatures above 120 °C and required remarkably slow collector speeds below 100 mm min\(^{-1}\). The fiber surface morphology was affected by the collector speed and an increase in β-phase was observed for scaffolds compared to the unprocessed powder. Videography shows vibrations of the P(VDF-co-TrFE) jet previously unseen during MEW, probably due to repeated charge buildup and discharge. Furthermore, piezo-force microscopy measurements demonstrated the electromechanical response of MEW-fabricated fibers. This research therefore achieves the melt electrohydrodynamic processing of fibers with micrometer resolution into defined structures with an important electroactive polymer.
Previous research on the melt electrowriting (MEW) of poly(vinylidene difluoride) (PVDF) resulted in electroactive fibers, however, printing more than five layers is challenging. Here, we investigate the influence of a heated collector to adjust the solidification rate of the PVDF jet so that it adheres sufficiently to each layer. A collector temperature of 110°C is required to improve fiber processing, resulting in a total of 20 fiber layers. For higher temperatures and higher layers, an interesting phenomenon occurred, where the intersection points of the fibers coalesced into periodic spheres of diameter 206 ± 52 μm (26G, 150°C collector temperature, 2000 mm/min, 10 layers in x- and y-direction).The heated collector is an important component of a MEW printer that allows polymers with a high melting point to be processable with increased layers.
Melt electrowriting, a high-resolution additive manufacturing technique, is used in this study to process a magnetic polymer-based blend for the first time. Carbonyl iron (CI) particles homogenously distribute into poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) melts to result in well-defined, highly porous structures or scaffolds comprised of fibers ranging from 30 to 50 µm in diameter. This study observes that CI particle incorporation is possible up to 30 wt% without nozzle clogging, albeit that the highest concentration results in heterogeneous fiber morphologies. In contrast, the direct writing of homogeneous PVDF fibers with up to 15 wt% CI is possible. The fibers can be readily displaced using magnets at concentrations of 1 wt% and above. Combined with good viability of L929 CC1 cells using Live/Dead imaging on scaffolds for all CI concentrations indicates that these formulations have potential for the usage in stimuli-responsive applications such as 4D printing.
Die „Malen nach Zahlen“ Methode zur Verbesserung der Präparation einer Vollgusskrone der Studenten
(2021)
Einleitung: Es gibt derzeit keine kommerziell erhältliche Lösung zur Verbesserung des Erlernens einer Kronenpräparation an Modellzähnen. Um diese Lücke zu schließen und die Betreuer von zahnmedizinischen Kursen zu unterstützen, wurde ein druckbarer und kostengünstiger Zahn zur strukturierten Selbsteinschätzung entwickelt. Das Ziel dieser Studie war es, diesen druckbaren Zahn unter realistischen vorklinischen Situationen zu testen. Materialien und Methoden: Es wurde ein zweifarbiger, zweischichtiger Übungszahn entwickelt. Dieser Zahn bestand aus einer korrekten Präparationsschicht und der Zahnkrone. Alle gedruckten Zähne wurden mit einem Stereolithografiedrucker hergestellt. 35 freiwillige Zahnmedizinstudenten des zweiten vorklinischen Kurses im zweiten Jahr, wurden nach dem Zufallsprinzip in zwei Gruppen aufgeteilt. Alle Studenten hatten Erfahrung mit Modellzähnen. Die erste Gruppe trainierte an vier Standard-Modellzähnen. Die zweite Gruppe verwendete Modellzähne für den ersten und vierten Versuch und gedruckte Zähne für den zweiten und dritten Versuch. Die Präparationen der Studenten wurden mit einem In-Lab-Scanner gescannt und die Oberflächenabweichungen im Gegensatz zu einer perfekten Präparation gemessen. Die Unterschiede zwischen dem ersten und vierten Versuch wurden berechnet. Der Nutzen des gedruckten Zahnes wurde durch einen Fragebogen mit deutschen Schulnoten von den Studierenden bewertet (1 = Ausgezeichnet, 2 = Gut, 3 = Befriedigend, 4 = Ausreichend, 5 = Schlecht, 6 = Unbefriedigend). Ergebnisse: Der Arbeitsablauf war praktikabel und kostengünstig in der Herstellung der der gedruckten Zähne. Die Gesamtbewertung des gedruckten Zahns im Fragebogen war gut (Ø 2,1 ± 0,22). Die Studenten berichteten verschiedene Vorteile dieser Methode im Freitext. Der Vergleich der Präparation zwischen dem ersten und vierten Versuch zeigte, dass mit den gedruckten Zähnen eine signifikant bessere Präparation erreicht wurde. Die vollständige Präparation hatte Medianwerte von 0,05 mm (Gruppe1: Standardmodellzahn) und -0,03 mm (Gruppe2: gedruckter Zahn) (P = .005). Aufgeteilt in einzelne Flächen waren die vestibulären und okklusalen Bereiche signifikant besser. Für die vestibuläre Fläche ergaben sich folgende Werte 0,11 mm (Gruppe1) und -0,04 mm (Gruppe2) (P = .018). Für die Okklusalfläche ergab sich eine Abweichung von 0,13 mm (Gruppe1) und -0,05 mm (Gruppe2) (P = .009). Schlussfolgerungen: Das Ziel dieser Studie wurde erfüllt. Der gedruckte Zahn wurde erfolgreich in einem vorklinischen Kurs getestet. Die Machbarkeit dieses Lehrkonzepts wurde durch den Fragebogen und die Analyse der Präparationsform bestätigt. Ein signifikanter Unterschied zu einem Standard-Modellzahn war messbar. Die Studenten hatten die Möglichkeit eine korrekte Kronenpräparation an einem standardisierten zweischichtigen Zahn mit eingebauter Präparation zu üben. Dieser gedruckte Zahn ermöglichte es den Studenten die Kronenpräparation selbst zu kontrollieren.
Introduction
For both students and teachers, it is challenging to learn and teach a correct crown preparation. The purpose of this study was the design, feasibility and evaluation of a 3D printed tooth model with internal preparation for dental education in crown preparation and to analyse the quality of the prepared printed teeth in comparison with prepared standard model teeth.
Materials and methods
A printable tooth was designed and printed by a stereolithographic printer. 38 fourth‐year dental students in the first clinical course in prosthodontics were trained in a voluntary course using printed teeth. Different aspects of the printed tooth were evaluated by a questionnaire using German school grades (1 best to 5 worst). The quality of the preparation with the printed teeth and standard training teeth was also rated in an evaluation form done by an expert group consisting of five experienced dentists.
Results
The workflow was feasible and cost‐effective for the production of the teeth. The overall rating of the printed tooth was Ø 2.0 ± 0.34 in the questionnaire completed by the students. The students rated the printed tooth model (Ø 2.1 ± 0.85) as significantly better than the standard model tooth (Ø 3.3 ± 0.77; P = .000). The students reported great benefits in the use of this model tooth, for example valuable replacement of a standard model and real teeth, direct control of material loss. The quality of the preparation was evaluated by the expert group as significantly better with an overall mean grade of Ø 2.6 ± 0.37 for the printed teeth compared to Ø 2.9 ± 0.42 for the standard model teeth (P = .000).
Conclusions
The feasibility of this teaching concept was confirmed. The students favoured to work on the innovative 3D‐teeth with internal preparation, emphasising the usefulness of this technique in dental education. The expert group confirmed also the significant training effect of this tooth model in contrast to a standard model tooth.