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SLC2A3 encodes the predominantly neuronal glucose transporter 3 (GLUT3), which facilitates diffusion of glucose across plasma membranes. The human brain depends on a steady glucose supply for ATP generation, which consequently fuels critical biochemical processes, such as axonal transport and neurotransmitter release. Besides its role in the central nervous system, GLUT3 is also expressed in nonneural organs, such as the heart and white blood cells, where it is equally involved in energy metabolism. In cancer cells, GLUT3 overexpression contributes to the Warburg effect by answering the cell's increased glycolytic demands. The SLC2A3 gene locus at chromosome 12p13.31 is unstable and prone to non‐allelic homologous recombination events, generating multiple copy number variants (CNVs) of SLC2A3 which account for alterations in SLC2A3 expression. Recent associations of SLC2A3 CNVs with different clinical phenotypes warrant investigation of the potential influence of these structural variants on pathomechanisms of neuropsychiatric, cardiovascular, and immune diseases. In this review, we accumulate and discuss the evidence how SLC2A3 gene dosage may exert diverse protective or detrimental effects depending on the pathological condition. Cellular states which lead to increased energetic demand, such as organ development, proliferation, and cellular degeneration, appear particularly susceptible to alterations in SLC2A3 copy number. We conclude that better understanding of the impact of SLC2A3 variation on disease etiology may potentially provide novel therapeutic approaches specifically targeting this GLUT.
Neuromelanin granules (NMGs) are organelle-like structures present in the human substantia nigra pars compacta. In addition to neuromelanin, NMGs contain proteins, lipids and metals. As NMG-containing dopaminergic neurons are preferentially lost in Parkinson’s disease and dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB), it is assumed that NMGs may play a role in neurodegenerative processes. Until now, this role is not completely understood and needs further investigation. We therefore set up an exploratory proteomic study to identify differences in the proteomic profile of NMGs from DLB patients (n = 5) compared to healthy controls (CTRL, n = 5). We applied a laser microdissection and mass-spectrometry-based approach, in which we used targeted mass spectrometric experiments for validation. In NMG-surrounding (SN\(_{Surr.}\)) tissue of DLB patients, we found evidence for ongoing oxidative damage and an impairment of protein degradation. As a potentially disease-related mechanism, we found α-synuclein and protein S100A9 to be enriched in NMGs of DLB cases, while the abundance of several ribosomal proteins was significantly decreased. As S100A9 is known to be able to enhance the formation of toxic α-synuclein fibrils, this finding points towards an involvement of NMGs in pathogenesis, however the exact role of NMGs as either neuroprotective or neurotoxic needs to be further investigated. Nevertheless, our study provides evidence for an impairment of protein degradation, ongoing oxidative damage and accumulation of potentially neurotoxic protein aggregates to be central mechanisms of neurodegeneration in DLB.
Kathepsin B und L sind lysosomale Cysteinproteasen, die mit einer Reihe von pathologischen Prozessen, wie z. B. Cancerogenese, Tumorangiogenese und Neurodegeneration in Verbindung gebracht werden. Dennoch sind bis jetzt nur wenige Proteinsubstrate beschrieben. Ausserdem sind die Mechanismen der Regulation von Zellproliferation, -invasion und -apoptose durch Kathepsin B und L weitgehend unverstanden. Ein kombinierter Mangel beider Kathepsine führt zu einer frühzeitigen Neurodegeneration in Mäusen, die an neuronale Lipofuszinosen beim Menschen erinnert. In der vorliegenden Studie wurden Unterschiede in der Proteinzusammensetzung von wildtypischen und doppelt-defizienten Gehirnlysosomen quantifiziert. Eine Kombination von subzellulärer Fraktionierung und LC-MS/MS unter Verwendung einer isobarischen Markierung (iTraqTM) erlaubte uns die gleichzeitige Untersuchung von zerebralen Lysosomen aus Wildtyp und Kathepsin B-/-L-/- Mäusen. Ingesamt waren 19 Proteine signifikant erhöht in Kathepsin B-/-L-/- Lysosomen. Die meisten erhöhten Proteine wurden der neuronalen Biosynthese, regenerierenden bzw. endozytotischen oder lysosomalen Kompartimenten zugeordnet. Der Anstieg von Calcyon, dem Delta/Notch- verwandten epidermalen Wachstumsfaktor-Rezeptor (DNER), Neurochondrin, Phospholipase D3, Rab14, Cathepsin D und Apolipoprotein E lässt eine potentielle Rolle von Kathepsin B und L im Axonwachstum und der Synapsenbildung während der postnatalen Entwicklung des Zentralnervensystems vermuten.
Voltage-gated calcium channels (VGCCs) are widely distributed within the central nervous system (CNS) and presumed to play an important role in the pathophysiology of a broad spectrum of CNS disorders including Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease as well as multiple sclerosis. Several calcium channel blockers have been in clinical practice for many years so that their toxicity and side effects are well studied. However, these drugs are primarily used for the treatment of cardiovascular diseases and most if not all effects on brain functions are secondary to peripheral effects on blood pressure and circulation. While the use of calcium channel antagonists for the treatment of CNS diseases therefore still heavily depends on the development of novel strategies to specifically target different channels and channel subunits, this review is meant to provide an impulse to further emphasize the importance of future research towards this goal.
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune disorder of the central nervous system (CNS) and characterized by the infiltration of immune cells, demyelination and axonal loss. Loss of axons and nerve fiber pathology are widely accepted as correlates of neurological disability. Hence, it is surprising that the development of neuroprotective therapies has been neglected for a long time. A reason for this could be the diversity of the underlying mechanisms, complex changes in nerve fiber pathology and the absence of biomarkers and tools to quantify neuroregenerative processes. Present therapeutic strategies are aimed at modulating or suppressing the immune response, but do not primarily attenuate axonal pathology. Yet, target-oriented neuroprotective strategies are essential for the treatment of MS, especially as severe damage of nerve fibers mostly occurs in the course of disease progression and cannot be impeded by immune modulatory drugs. This review shall depict the need for neuroprotective strategies and elucidate difficulties and opportunities.
The pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease (PD) is closely interwoven with the process of aging. Moreover, increasing evidence from human postmortem studies and from animal models for PD point towards inflammation as an additional factor in disease development. We here assessed the impact of aging and inflammation on dopaminergic neurodegeneration in the hm\(^{2}\)α-SYN-39 mouse model of PD that carries the human, A30P/A53T double-mutated α-synuclein gene. At 2–3 months of age, no significant differences were observed comparing dopaminergic neuron numbers of the substantia nigra (SN) pars compacta of hm\(^{2}\)α-SYN-39 mice with wildtype controls. At an age of 16–17 months, however, hm\(^{2}\)α-SYN-39 mice revealed a significant loss of dopaminergic SN neurons, of dopaminergic terminals in the striatum as well as a reduction of striatal dopamine levels compared to young, 2–3 months transgenic mice and compared to 16–17 months old wildtype littermates. A significant age-related correlation of infiltrating CD4+ and CD8\(^{+}\) T cell numbers with dopaminergic terminal loss of the striatum was found in hm\(^{2}\)α-SYN-39 mice, but not in wildtype controls. In the striatum of 16–17 months old wildtype mice a slightly elevated CD8\(^{+}\) T cell count and CD11b\(^{+}\) microglia cell count was observed compared to younger aged mice. Additional analyses of neuroinflammation in the nigrostriatal tract of wildtype mice did not yield any significant age-dependent changes of CD4\(^{+}\), CD8\(^{+}\) T cell and B220\(^{+}\) B cell numbers, respectively. In contrast, a significant age-dependent increase of CD8\(^{+}\) T cells, GFAP\(^{+}\) astrocytes as well as a pronounced increase of CD11b+ microglia numbers were observed in the SN of hm\(^{2}\)α-SYN-39 mice pointing towards a neuroinflammatory processes in this genetic mouse model for PD. The findings in the hm\(^{2}\)α-SYN-39 mouse model strengthen the evidence that T cell and glial cell responses are involved in the age-related neurodegeneration in PD. The slow and age-dependent progression of neurodegeneration and neuroinflammation in the hm\(^{2}\)α-SYN-39 PD rodent model underlines its translational value and makes it suitable for studying anti-inflammatory therapies.
Symptomatic treatments are available for Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease. An unmet need is cure or disease modification. This review discusses possible reasons for negative clinical study outcomes on disease modification following promising positive findings from experimental research. It scrutinizes current research paradigms for disease modification with antibodies against pathological protein enrichment, such as α-synuclein, amyloid or tau, based on post mortem findings. Instead a more uniform regenerative and reparative therapeutic approach for chronic neurodegenerative disease entities is proposed with stimulation of an endogenously existing repair system, which acts independent of specific disease mechanisms. The repulsive guidance molecule A pathway is involved in the regulation of peripheral and central neuronal restoration. Therapeutic antagonism of repulsive guidance molecule A reverses neurodegeneration according to experimental outcomes in numerous disease models in rodents and monkeys. Antibodies against repulsive guidance molecule A exist. First clinical studies in neurological conditions with an acute onset are under way. Future clinical trials with these antibodies should initially focus on well characterized uniform cohorts of patients. The efficiency of repulsive guidance molecule A antagonism and associated stimulation of neurogenesis should be demonstrated with objective assessment tools to counteract dilution of therapeutic effects by subjectivity and heterogeneity of chronic disease entities. Such a research concept will hopefully enhance clinical test strategies and improve the future therapeutic armamentarium for chronic neurodegeneration.
Die HIV-Infektion des Gehirns induzierte eine Vielzahl neurologischer und neuropsychiatrischer Veränderungen, die gemeinsam als HIV-assoziierte Demenz bezeichnet werden. Insbesondere eine Beteiligung der glutamate-vermittelten Toxizität wird im Rahmen der HIV-Demenz diskutiert. Die vorliegende Arbeit verwendete das wichtigste Tiermodell der HIV-Infektion, mit simianen Immundefizienzviren (SIV) infizierte Rhesusaffen, um die komplexen Wechselwirkungen zwischen Immunaktivierung und adaptiven Veränderungen der glutamatergen Synapse und ihrer Umgebung zu untersuchen. Mittels einer Microarrayanalyse wurden allgemein Unterscheide im Genexpressionsprofil der Basalganglien von Rhesusaffen während dem Fortschreiten der Infektion erfasst. Die Ergebnisse zeigten Unterschiede in der transkriptionalen Regulation zwischen Chinesischen und Indischen Makakkensubspezies, sowie ein einzigartig differenziertes Genexpressionsmuster als Antwort auf die SIV-Infektion selbst. Um adaptive Veränderungen in den funktionalen Elementen der glutamatergen Synapse weiter zu charakterisieren, wurde die Expression der N-methyl-D-aspartat-Rezeptoruntereinheiten gemessen, wobei ein progressiver Verlust der Untereinheitenexpression im Putamen sowie ein differenziellen Expressionsmuster in Abhängigkeit sowohl von der Makakkensubspezies sowie von der Hirnregion im Nucleus accumbens SIV-infizierter Rhesusaffen festgestellt wurde. Außerdem konnte die vorliegende Arbeite zum ersten Mal eine Störung der exzitatorischen Aminosäuretransporter, dem wichtigsten Glutamatwiederaufnahmesystem, im Putamen, aber nicht im Nucleus accumbens, während der SIV-Infektion nachweisen. Zuvor durchgeführte Arbeiten wiesen darauf hin, dass neurochemischen Dysfunktionen unter Umständen das Ergebnis einer indirekten Toxizität vermittelt durch aktivierte Mikroglia und der daraus resultierenden Ausschüttung schädlicher Faktoren sein könnten. Entsprechend zeigten unsere Daten einen Anstieg in der MHC-II- und TNF-alpha-Expression bereits während der asymptomatischen Phase, und eine noch deutlichere Heraufregulierung in AIDS-Tieren. Zusammenfassend weist die vorliegen Arbeit auf komplexe und kombinierte Mechanismen von einem Anstieg in der Glutamatkonzentration mit einer Dysregulation der NMDA-Rezeptorfunktion sowie der Glutamatwiederaufnahmesysteme verursacht durch eine Immunaktivierung hin. Außerdem konnte in Versuchen zur pharmakologischen Beeinflussung der glutamatergen Synapse mittels dopaminerger Substanzen, NMDAR-Antagonisten und Antioxidantien eine Verbesse-rung der neurochemischen Funktion durch den nichtkompetitiven Antagonisten Memantin und die Antioxidantien Melatonin sowie N-Acetylcystein gezeigt werden. Hingegen trugen die Ergebnisse mit dem MAO-B-Inhibitor Selegilin weiter zu Bedenken zur Sicherheit und Effizienz dopaminerger Substanzen in der Behandlung von HIV-Patienten bei. Außerdem zeigte die vorliegende Arbeit, dass Memantin spezifisch die mRNA- und Proteinexpression des Neurotrophins BNDF heraufregulierte und weist somit auf eine neuartige pharmakologische Wirkung Antidementivums hin. In einer ergänzenden Studie wurden Schritte zur Entwicklung und Verbesserung adeno-assoziierten viraler und foamyviraler Vektoren, die shRNAs für die effiziente Ausschaltung der Expression des murinen und humanen Dopamintransporters, durchgeführt. Es wurden verschieden virale Vektorplasmide kloniert, Effektormoleküle mit einer hohen Knockdown-Aktivität identifiziert, und infektiöse rekombinante Viren hergestellt. Zudem konnte die Expression des humanen Dopamintransporters auf Lymphozyten bestätigt werden. Diese Ergebnisse werden die Entwicklung transgener Tiere und Zelllinien erleichtern und tragen so zur Analyse der natürlichen dopaminergen Neurotransmission in der psychiatrischen Forschung bei, wobei die durch endogene Anpassungen der dopaminerge Systeme in klassischen Knockout-Systemen hervorgerufenen Schwierigkeiten umgangen werden können.
Recent advances in proteomic technologies now allow unparalleled assessment of the molecular composition of a wide range of sample types. However, the application of such technologies and techniques should not be undertaken lightly. Here, we describe why the design of a proteomics experiment itself is only the first step in yielding high-quality, translatable results. Indeed, the effectiveness and/or impact of the majority of contemporary proteomics screens are hindered not by commonly considered technical limitations such as low proteome coverage but rather by insufficient analyses. Proteomic experimentation requires a careful methodological selection to account for variables from sample collection, through to database searches for peptide identification to standardised post-mass spectrometry options directed analysis workflow, which should be adjusted for each study, from determining when and how to filter proteomic data to choosing holistic versus trend-wise analyses for biologically relevant patterns. Finally, we highlight and discuss the difficulties inherent in the modelling and study of the majority of progressive neurodegenerative conditions. We provide evidence (in the context of neurodegenerative research) for the benefit of undertaking a comparative approach through the application of the above considerations in the alignment of publicly available pre-existing data sets to identify potential novel regulators of neuronal stability.
Neurodegeneration by α-synuclein-specific T cells in AAV-A53T-α-synuclein Parkinson’s disease mice
(2022)
Background
Antigen-specific neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration are characteristic for neuroimmunological diseases. In Parkinson’s disease (PD) pathogenesis, α-synuclein is a known culprit. Evidence for α-synuclein-specific T cell responses was recently obtained in PD. Still, a causative link between these α-synuclein responses and dopaminergic neurodegeneration had been lacking. We thus addressed the functional relevance of α-synuclein-specific immune responses in PD in a mouse model.
Methods
We utilized a mouse model of PD in which an Adeno-associated Vector 1/2 serotype (AAV1/2) expressing human mutated A53T-α-Synuclein was stereotactically injected into the substantia nigra (SN) of either wildtype C57BL/6 or Recombination-activating gene 1 (RAG1)\(^{-/-}\) mice. Brain, spleen, and lymph node tissues from different time points following injection were then analyzed via FACS, cytokine bead assay, immunohistochemistry and RNA-sequencing to determine the role of T cells and inflammation in this model. Bone marrow transfer from either CD4\(^{+}\)/CD8\(^{-}\), CD4\(^{-}\)/CD8\(^{+}\), or CD4\(^{+}\)/CD8\(^{+}\) (JHD\(^{-/-}\)) mice into the RAG-1\(^{-/-}\) mice was also employed. In addition to the in vivo studies, a newly developed A53T-α-synuclein-expressing neuronal cell culture/immune cell assay was utilized.
Results
AAV-based overexpression of pathogenic human A53T-α-synuclein in dopaminergic neurons of the SN stimulated T cell infiltration. RNA-sequencing of immune cells from PD mouse brains confirmed a pro-inflammatory gene profile. T cell responses were directed against A53T-α-synuclein-peptides in the vicinity of position 53 (68–78) and surrounding the pathogenically relevant S129 (120–134). T cells were required for α-synuclein-induced neurodegeneration in vivo and in vitro, while B cell deficiency did not protect from dopaminergic neurodegeneration.
Conclusions
Using T cell and/or B cell deficient mice and a newly developed A53T-α-synuclein-expressing neuronal cell culture/immune cell assay, we confirmed in vivo and in vitro that pathogenic α-synuclein peptide-specific T cell responses can cause dopaminergic neurodegeneration and thereby contribute to PD-like pathology.