Refine
Has Fulltext
- yes (14)
Is part of the Bibliography
- yes (14)
Document Type
- Doctoral Thesis (13)
- Book (1)
Keywords
- Monoklonaler Antikörper (14) (remove)
Das Immunsystem zu aktivieren, um eine körpereigene Immunantwort gegen Tumorzellen hervorzurufen, ist ein innovativer Therapieansatz. Eine vielversprechende Zielstruktur hierfür ist CD40, ein Mitglied der TNFRSF- Familie und starker Stimulator Antigen-präsentierender Zellen.
Die TNFRSF-Rezeptor Aktivierung ist abhängig von der Bildung oligomerer (TNFSF3-TNFRSF3)2 Komplexe, was insbesondere durch entsprechende räumliche Ausrichtung membranständiger Liganden und deren hohe lokale Konzentration im Zell-Zell-Kontakt gewährleistet wird. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurde die (TNFSF3-TNFRSF3)2 Komplexbildung mittels membranständiger Liganden durch die Generierung von CD40-spezifischen Antikörper-Fusions- proteinen imitiert, die über zusätzliche Bindedomänen, single chain fragment variable (scFvs), für zellständige Zielstrukturen (CD70, BCMA, PDL1) verfügen. Dazu wurden die schweren und/oder leichten anti-CD40 Antikörperketten C-terminal mit einem scFv-Fragment verknüpft und dadurch verschiedene CD40-spezifische Antikörper-Fusionsproteine mit scFv-Fragmenten generiert. Die Funktionalität dieser besonderen Antikörper-Fusionsproteine wurde hinsichtlich ihrer Bindungsfähigkeit mittels Gaussia princeps Luciferaseassay und hinsichtlich ihres Agonismus über den Nachweis der Interleukin-8 Induktion per ELISA analysiert. Dabei zeigte sich, dass die CD40-Aktivierung durch die an den Antikörper-Fusionsproteinen verankerten scFv-Domänen bei einem Großteil potenziert werden konnte, wenn diese die entsprechenden Zielantigene CD70, BCMA, PDL1 binden. Des Weiteren waren hinsichtlich ihres Agonimsus die Antikörper-Fusionsproteine mit einer scFv-Domäne an der schweren oder an der leichten Antikörperkette den Antikörper-Fusionsproteinen überlegen, die scFv-Domänen an beiden Antikörperketten aufwiesen. Dennoch stellen auch letztere eine vielversprechende Therapievariante dar, da sie aufgrund ihrer breiteren Spezifität verschiedene Tumorantigene binden können. Die in dieser Arbeit produzierten und charakterisierten CD40-spezifischen Antikörper-Fusionsproteine aktivieren das Immunsystem gezielter in dem Gewebe, in dem vermehrt spezifische Tumorantigene exprimiert werden. Dadurch eröffnen sie neue Möglichkeiten in der Tumortherapie.
Es sollten Checkpoint inhibierende anti-TNFRSF Rezeptor Antikörper-Fusionsproteine hergestellt und charakterisiert werden. Die agonistische Aktivität TNFR-spezifischer Antikörper wird maßgeblich durch eine Immobilisation über Fcγ-Rezeptoren beeinflusst. In dieser Arbeit erfolgte die Immobilisation der Antikörper-Fusionsproteine über den PD-L1. In funktionellen Assays konnte eine Aktivitätssteigerung der TNFR-spezifischen Domänen mittels PD-L1 vermittelter Immobilisation gezeigt werden.
Background
GDF-15 is a divergent member of the TGF-superfamily, which was first described as macrophage inhibitory cytokine-1 (MIC-1), revealing an immune modulatory function. GDF-15 is a soluble protein which is, under physiological conditions, highly expressed in the placenta and found in elevated levels in blood sera of pregnant women. Apart from the placenta, GDF-15 is expressed in healthy tissue, albeit to a lower extent and overexpressed in many solid tumors. A variety of different functions are attributed to GDF-15 in healthy as well as diseased humans. On the one hand, GDF-15 is required for successful pregnancy and low GDF-15 serum levels during pregnancy correlate with fetal abortion. On the other hand, overexpression of GDF-15, which can be observed in several malignancies is correlated with a poor prognosis. Furthermore, tumor derived GDF-15 leads to cancer associated anorexia-cachexia syndrome in mice. The aim of my PhD thesis was to further investigate the role of GDF-15 as an immune modulatory factor in cancer, in particular, by inhibiting the target molecule in vitro and in vivo. Therefore, the main focus was placed on the generation and characterization of monoclonal GDF-15 specific blocking antibodies, which were tested in vitro and in vivo, which represents a substantial part of my work.
Results
Here, GDF-15 was shown to be highly expressed in human gynecological cancer and brain tumors. We could then demonstrate that GDF-15 modulates effector immune cells in vitro. GDF-15 mediated a slight downregulation of the activating NKG2D receptor on NK and CD8+ T cells, which is crucial for proper anti-tumoral immune responses. Furthermore, we could demonstrate that GDF-15 reduces the adhesion of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells on endothelial cells in vitro. A negatively affected trans-endothelial migration of leukocytes into inflamed tissue could explain the low T cell infiltration in GDF-15 expressing tumors, which were observed in vivo, where mice bearing (shRNA mediated) GDF-15 deficient glioma cells revealed enhanced immune cell infiltrates in the tumor microenvironment, compared with the GDF-15 expressing control group. Those animals further exhibited a decreased tumor growth and prolonged survival. GDF-15 is a soluble protein, secreted by more than 50 % of solid tumors and associated with grade of malignancy. Therefore a neutralizing monoclonal antibody to GDF-15 was assumed to be an auspicious therapeutically anti-cancer tool. Such an antibody was thus generated in GDF-15 knock out mice against human GFD-15. Amongst many clones, the GDF-15 antibody clone B1-23 was found to be applicable in Western Blot as well as in ELISA techniques, detecting a three-dimensional epitope of the mature GDF-15 dimer with high affinity and specificity. To enable the humanization for a later administration in humans, the variable regions of antibody B1-23 were identified by a special PCR method using degenerate primers and cloned into a sequencing vector. The sequence obtained thereby enabled the generation of chimeric and humanized B1-23 variants. After further comprehensive characterization, the original mouse antibody B1-23 as well as the chimeric antibody (ChimB1-23) and the humanized B1-23 antibody (H1L5) were applied in a melanoma xenograft study in vivo. None of the antibodies could significantly inhibit tumor growth. .However of utmost importance, body weight loss mediated by tumor derived GDF-15 could be significantly prevented upon administration of all three GDF-15 specific antibodies, which confirmed the antagonizing functionality of the immunoglobulin.
Conclusion
GDF-15 is a promising cancer target, involved in tumor progression and cancer related cachexia. A monoclonal GDF-15 antibody was generated, which served on one hand as a tool for molecular biological applications (Western Blot, ELISA, etc.) and on the other hand was applied as an antagonizing antibody in vitro and in vivo. Even though tumor growth inhibition by GDF-15 depletion in T cell deficient athymic mice failed using B1-23, the same antibody and derivates thereof (chimeric and humanized) impressively prevented tumor associated cachexia in UACC-257 melanoma bearing nude mice. The missing anti-tumor effect in our own melanoma model in nude mice can only partially be explained by the missing secondary immunity, in particular cytotoxic T cells, in the athymic animals, since in a similar melanoma model, performed by an external company, a tumor reduction in immunocompromised animals was observed, when B1-23 was administered. These findings support the idea that T cells are substantial for an effective tumor immunity and are in line with the results of the syngeneic, T cell comprising, mouse glioma model, where silencing of tumor expressed GDF-15 led to an enhanced intratumoral T cell infiltration and a prolonged survival.
Taken together our data allow for the conclusion that tumor associated cachexia can be combatted with the GDF-15 antibody B1-23. Further, B1-23 might elicit direct anti-tumor effects in immune competent models, which contain T cells, rather than in an athymic, T cell deficient nude mouse model.
Um eine Signaltransduktion mittels agnostischer Antikörper an Rezeptoren der TNFRSF zu bewirken, ist eine vorherige Immobilisation über des Fc Anteil des Antikörpers Grundvorraussetzung. In dieser Arbeit sollte die Möglichkeit der Verankerung über eine andere Bindungsdomäne untersucht werden. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass eine Immobilisation mittels scFv:CD70 zu einer starken Signalaktivierung führt.
Trotz zahlreicher Fortschritte im Verständnis der Funktionsweise des kostimulatorischen Rezeptors CD28 in Mensch, Maus, Ratte und Makake ist nach wie vor wenig hierüber in Bezug auf das Tiermodell Schwein bekannt. Die vorliegende Arbeit untersucht die Funktion und Expression von CD28 in Schweine-T-Zellen sowie die Regulierbarkeit der T-Zellaktivierung durch anti-pCD28 mAb. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass hierbei vor allem CD4+ und CD8+ T-Zellen differenziert betrachtet werden müssen. Grundsätzlich unterscheiden sich die beiden T-Zellpopulationen in der CD28 mRNA Expression, im Expressionsverhältnis zwischen CD28 mRNA und Protein, sowie im proliferativen Ansprechen auf anti-pCD28mAb. So reagierten CD4+ im Vergleich zu CD8+ T-Zellen auf die kostimulatorische Inkubation mit anti-pCD28 mAb des Klons 3D11 sensibler. In direkt stimulatorischen Ansätzen zeigte sich, dass CD4+ und CD8+ T-Zellen durch unterschiedliche anti-pCD28 mAb differentiell angesprochen werden können. Eine superagonistische Funktion konnte für CD4+ T-Zell aktivierende anti-pCD28 mAb in den bisherigen Versuchen noch nicht beobachtet werden. Letzteres ist hierbei vor allem für den Transfer von vielversprechenden Therapiestrategien vom Kleintier- zum Großtiermodell auf dem Weg zur Entwicklung neuer Therapieoptionen für Autoimmunerkrankungen, Erkrankungen mit starker proinflammatorischer Aktivität und dem Myokardinfarkt von Bedeutung.
Tumor angiogenesis is essential for the growth of solid tumors as their proliferation and survival is dependent on consistent oxygen and nutrient supply. Anti-angiogenic treatments represent a therapeutic strategy to inhibit tumor growth by preventing the formation of new blood vessels leading to starvation of the tumor. One of the best characterized anti angiogenic therapeutics is the monoclonal antibody bevacizumab (Avastin), which targets and neutralizes VEGF leading to disruption of the VEGF signaling pathway. Until today, bevacizumab has found its way into clinical practice and has gained approval for treatment of different types of cancer including colorectal cancer, non-small cell lung cancer, breast cancer and renal cell carcinoma. Signaling of VEGF is mediated through VEGF receptors, mainly VEGFR2, which are primarily located on the cell surface of endothelial cells. However, there has been evidence that expression of VEGF receptors can also be found on tumor cells themselves raising the possibility of autocrine and/or paracrine signaling loops. Thus, tumor cells could also benefit from VEGF signaling, which would promote tumor growth. The aim of this study was to investigate if bevacizumab has a direct effect on tumor cells in vitro. To this end, tumor cell lines from the NCI-60 panel derived from four different tumor types were treated with bevacizumab and angiogenic gene and protein expression as well as biological outputs including proliferation, migration and apoptosis were investigated. Most of the experiments were performed under hypoxia to mimic the in vivo state of tumors. Overall, there was a limited measurable effect of bevacizumab on treated tumor cell lines according to gene and protein expression changes as well as biological functions when compared to endothelial controls. Minor changes in terms of proliferation or gene regulation were evident in a single tumor cell line after VEGF-A blockade by bevacizumab, which partially demonstrated a direct effect on tumor cells. However, the overall analysis revealed that tumor cell lines are not intrinsically affected in an adverse manner by bevacizumab treatment.
Besides the functional analysis of tumor cells, embryonic stem cell derived endothelial cells were characterized to delineate vascular Hey gene functions. Hey and Hes proteins are the best characterized downstream effectors of the evolutionary conserved Notch signaling pathway, which mainly act as transcriptional repressors regulating downstream target genes. Hey proteins play a crucial role in embryonic development as loss of Hey1 and Hey2 in mice in vivo leads to a severe vascular phenotype resulting in early embryonic lethality. The major aim of this part of the thesis was to identify vascular Hey target genes using embryonic stem cell derived endothelial cells utilizing a directed endothelial differentiation approach, as ES cells and their differentiation ability provide a powerful in vitro system to study developmental processes. To this end, Hey deficient and Hey wildtype embryonic stem cells were stably transfected with an antibiotic selection marker driven by an endothelial specific promoter, which allows selection for endothelial cells. ESC-derived endothelial cells exhibited typical endothelial characteristics as shown by marker gene expression, immunofluorescent staining and tube formation ability. In a second step, Hey deficient ES cells were stably transfected with doxycycline inducible Flag-tagged Hey1 and Hey2 transgenes to re-express Hey proteins in the respective cell line. RNA-Sequencing of Hey deficient and Hey overexpressing ES cells as well as ESC-derived endothelial cells revealed many Hey downstream target genes in ES cells and fewer target genes in endothelial cells. Hey1 and Hey2 more or less redundantly regulate target genes in ES cells, but some genes were regulated by Hey2 alone. According to Gene Ontology term analysis, Hey target genes are mainly involved in embryonic development and transcriptional regulation. However, the response of ESC-derived endothelial cells in regulating Hey downstream target genes was rather limited when compared to ES cells, which could be due to lower transgene expression in endothelial cells. The limited response also raises the possibility that target gene regulation in endothelial cells is not only dependent on Hey gene functions alone and thus loss or overexpression of Hey genes in this in vitro setting does not influence target gene regulation.
Herstellung monoklonaler Antikörper gegen das von Aspergillus fumigatus produzierte Gift Gliotoxin
(2014)
Diese Arbeit befasst sich mit der Herstellung monoklonaler Antikörper gegen Gliotoxin und eine Charakterisierung der Eigenschaften dieser Antikörper sowie ihrer Fab-Fragmente im ELISA sowie in Zellkulturen. Insgesamt konnten fünf monoklonale Antikörper generiert werden, die spezifisch für das Mykotoxin Gliotoxin waren.
Der Verlauf von Prionenerkrankungen wird durch die Akkumulation einer abnormal gefalteten Isoform des zellulären Prion-Proteins PrPC bestimmt. Diese infektiöse Isoform, die PrPSc genannt wird, entsteht, indem sie mit PrPC interagiert und dieses die Konformation von PrPSc übernimmt. Die Konversion des zellulären Prion-Proteins PrPC in seine pathogene Isoform PrPSc und die damit verbundene PrPSc-Akkumulation sind demnach die wesentlichen Merkmale von Prionenerkrankungen und bieten mögliche therapeutische Ansatzpunkte. Studien aus den letzten Jahren haben gezeigt, dass Antikörper, die gegen PrPC und/oder PrPSc gerichtet sind, in vitro und in vivo in den Konversionsprozess eingreifen können und so die PrPSc-Akkumulation inhibieren (Enari et al., 2001; Feraudet et al., 2005b; Kim et al., 2004; Miyamoto et al., 2005; Pankiewicz et al., 2006; White et al., 2003). Das Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war somit die Generation neuer Anti-PrP-Antikörper, welche die PrPSc-Konversion effizient hemmen können und somit die Auswahl an Anti-PrP-Antikörpern für therapeutische und diagnostische Zwecke zu erweitern. Insgesamt wurden sieben Anti-PrP-Antikörper mittels „Hybridom“-Technik hergestellt. Zwei der Antikörper (B2-31-166 und B2-43-133) resultierten aus einer Fusion mit Milzzellen von Prnp0/0-Mäusen, die zuvor mit fibrillärem PrP immunisiert wurden. Bei fünf Antikörpern (7-12-5, 12-29, 48-11-5, 103-8 und 110-10) wurde für die Immunisierung rekombinantes PrP verwendet. Alle Antikörper detektierten rekombinantes PrP sowie natives und denaturiertes PrPC und PrPSc. Die bestimmten Aviditäten und die relativ einheitlichen Dissoziationskonstanten (KD-Konstante) waren mit kommerziellen Referenzantikörpern vergleichbar. Das Epitop des Antikörpers B2-31-166 wurde im unstrukturierten N-Terminus von PrP lokalisiert (Reste 96-110), während die Antikörper 7-12-5, 12-29 und 48-11-5 PrP im globulären C-Terminus binden (Reste 158-176). Das Epitop der Antikörper 103-8, 110-10 und B2-43-133 wurde ebenfalls im C-Terminus bestimmt (Reste 142-157). Diese Antikörper binden PrP im Bereich der Helix 1 (Reste 144-152), einem Epitop, das bereits häufiger für inhibitorisch wirksame Antikörper bestimmt wurde. Drei der sieben Anti-PrP-Antikörper (7-12-5, 12-29 und B2-31-166) hemmten die PrPSc-Akkumulation in Prion-infizierten N2a-Zellen (ScN2a-Zellen) nicht. Der Antikörper 48-11-5 führte zu einer unvollständigen Reduktion des PrPSc-Gehalts, die sich auch durch die Verlängerung des Applikationszeitraums nicht verstärken ließ. Dagegen inhibierten die Antikörper 103-8, 110-10 und B2-43-133 die PrPSc-Akkumulation vollständig. Dieser Effekt wurde auf eine spezifische Interaktion der Antikörper mit PrP zurückgeführt, da ein zytotoxischer Effekt, der den PrPSc-Gehalt unspezifisch hätte verringern können, nicht beobachtet wurde. Bei der Analyse der Infektiosität von ScN2a-Zellen zeigte sich jedoch, dass der Antikörper 110-10 zwar die PrPSc-Akkumulation inhibierte, aber die Infektiosität der Zellen nicht reduzieren konnte. Die Behandlung mit dem Antikörper 103-8 reduzierte die Infektiosität der ScN2a-Zellen zwar, jedoch setzte 30 Tage nach Abschluss der Behandlung eine erneute PrPSc-Akkumulation in ScN2a-Zellen ein. Dagegen reduzierte die Behandlung mit dem Antikörper B2-43-133 die Infektiosität der ScN2a-Zellen vollständig. Des Weiteren wurde bei diesen Zellen auch nach 36 Tagen Kultivierung ohne Antikörper keine erneute PrPSc-Akkumulation detektiert. Die starke inhibitorische Wirkung dieses Antikörpers wird zusätzlich durch einen sehr niedrigen IC50-Wert (0,31 nM) unterstützt, der mit kommerziellen Referenzantikörpern vergleichbar ist. Zusammenfassend sprechen diese Ergebnisse dafür, dass von den sieben neu generierten Anti-PrP-Antikörpern der Antikörper B2-43-133 ein Kandidat für weiterführende Experimente mit therapeutischem Hintergrund ist. Welchen Mechanismus die Anti-PrP-Antikörper für die Inhibition nutzen, konnte nicht geklärt werden. Obwohl der Antikörper B2-43-133 die Verweildauer von PrPC auf der Zelloberfläche (Retention) verlängerte, wodurch hypothetisch die gebundenen PrPC-Moleküle der PrPSc-Konversion entzogen werden können, wurde dies für einen Referenzantikörper, welcher einen ähnlichen inhibitorischen Effekt besitzt, nicht beobachtet. Dies spricht entweder dafür, dass die Verlängerung der Retention nur ein weiteres Charakteristikum der Antikörper ist und ein anderer Mechanismus genutzt wird, oder dafür, dass verschiedene Antikörper verschiedene Mechanismen nutzen können. Auch die Hypothese, dass die inhibitorische Wirkung des Antikörpers durch eine Komplexbildung mit PrP vermittelt wird, konnte nicht bestätigt werden, da eine stabile Komplexbildung des Antikörpers B2-43-133 mit rekombinantem PrP zu einer Erhöhung des IC50-Werts im Vergleich zu freiem Antikörper führte.
For a large fraction of the proteins expressed in the human brain only the primary structure is known from the genome project. Proteins conserved in evolution can be studied in genetic models such as Drosophila. In this doctoral thesis monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) from the Wuerzburg Hybridoma library are produced and characterized with the aim to identify the target antigen. The mAb ab52 was found to be an IgM which recognized a cytosolic protein of Mr ~110 kDa on Western blots. The antigen was resolved by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2DE) as a single distinct spot. Mass spectrometric analysis of this spot revealed EPS-15 (epidermal growth factor receptor pathway substrate clone 15) to be a strong candidate. Another mAb from the library, aa2, was already found to recognize EPS-15, and comparison of the signal of both mAbs on Western blots of 1D and 2D electrophoretic separations revealed similar patterns, hence indicating that both antigens could represent the same protein. Finally absence of the wild-type signal in homozygous Eps15 mutants in a Western blot with ab52 confirmed the ab52 antigen to be EPS-15. Thus both the mAbs aa2 and ab52 recognize the Drosophila homologue of EPS-15. The mAb aa2, being an IgG, is more suitable for applications like immunoprecipitation (IP). It has already been submitted to the Developmental Studies Hybridoma Bank (DSHB) to be easily available for the entire research community. The mAb na21 was also found to be an IgM. It recognizes a membrane associated antigen of Mr ~10 kDa on Western blots. Due to the membrane associated nature of the protein, it was not possible to resolve it by 2DE and due to the IgM nature of the mAb it was not possible to enrich the antigen by IP. Preliminary attempts to biochemically purify the endogenously expressed protein from the tissue, gave promising results but could not be completed due to lack of time. Thus biochemical purification of the protein seems possible in order to facilitate its identification by mass spectrometry. Several other mAbs were studied for their staining pattern on cryosections and whole mounts of Drosophila brains. However, many of these mAbs stained very few structures in the brain, which indicated that only a very limited amount of protein would be available as starting material. Because these antibodies did not produce signals on Western blots, which made it impossible to enrich the antigens by electrophoretic methods, we did not attempt their purification. However, the specific localization of these proteins makes them highly interesting and calls for their further characterization, as they may play a highly specialized role in the development and/or function of the neural circuits they are present in. The purification and identification of such low expression proteins would need novel methods of enrichment of the stained structures.
For a large fraction of the proteins expressed in the human brain only the primary
structure is known from the genome project. Proteins conserved in evolution can
be studied in genetic models such as Drosophila. In this doctoral thesis monoclonal
antibodies (mAbs) from the Wuerzburg Hybridoma library are produced and
characterized with the aim to identify the target antigen. The mAb ab52 was found
to be an IgM which recognized a cytosolic protein of Mr ~110 kDa on Western
blots. The antigen was resolved by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2DE) as a
single distinct spot. Mass spectrometric analysis of this spot revealed EPS-15
(epidermal growth factor receptor pathway substrate clone 15) to be a strong
candidate. Another mAb from the library, aa2, was already found to recognize
EPS-15, and comparison of the signal of both mAbs on Western blots of 1D and
2D electrophoretic separations revealed similar patterns, hence indicating that both
antigens could represent the same protein. Finally absence of the wild-type signal
in homozygous Eps15 mutants in a Western blot with ab52 confirmed the ab52
antigen to be EPS-15. Thus both the mAbs aa2 and ab52 recognize the Drosophila
homologue of EPS-15. The mAb aa2, being an IgG, is more suitable for
applications like immunoprecipitation (IP). It has already been submitted to the
Developmental Studies Hybridoma Bank (DSHB) to be easily available for the
entire research community.
The mAb na21 was also found to be an IgM. It recognizes a membrane associated
antigen of Mr ~10 kDa on Western blots. Due to the membrane associated nature
of the protein, it was not possible to resolve it by 2DE and due to the IgM nature of
the mAb it was not possible to enrich the antigen by IP. Preliminary attempts to
biochemically purify the endogenously expressed protein from the tissue, gave
99
promising results but could not be completed due to lack of time. Thus
biochemical purification of the protein seems possible in order to facilitate its
identification by mass spectrometry. Several other mAbs were studied for their
staining pattern on cryosections and whole mounts of Drosophila brains. However,
many of these mAbs stained very few structures in the brain, which indicated that
only a very limited amount of protein would be available as starting material.
Because these antibodies did not produce signals on Western blots, which made it
impossible to enrich the antigens by electrophoretic methods, we did not attempt
their purification. However, the specific localization of these proteins makes them
highly interesting and calls for their further characterization, as they may play a
highly specialized role in the development and/or function of the neural circuits
they are present in. The purification and identification of such low expression
proteins would need novel methods of enrichment of the stained structures.