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With the introduction of OpenFlow by the Stanford University in 2008, a process began in the area of network research, which questions the predominant approach of fully distributed network control. OpenFlow is a communication protocol that allows the externalization of the network control plane from the network devices, such as a router, and to realize it as a logically-centralized entity in software. For this concept, the term "Software Defined Networking" (SDN) was coined during scientific discourse.
For the network operators, this concept has several advantages. The two most important can be summarized under the points cost savings and flexibility. Firstly, it is possible through the uniform interface for network hardware ("Southbound API"), as implemented by OpenFlow, to combine devices and software from different manufacturers, which increases the innovation and price pressure on them. Secondly, the realization of the network control plane as a freely programmable software with open interfaces ("Northbound API") provides the opportunity to adapt it to the individual circumstances of the operator's network and to exchange information with the applications it serves. This allows the network to be more flexible and to react more quickly to changing circumstances as well as transport the traffic more effectively and tailored to the user’s "Quality of Experience" (QoE).
The approach of a separate network control layer for packet-based networks is not new and has already been proposed several times in the past. Therefore, the SDN approach has raised many questions about its feasibility in terms of efficiency and applicability. These questions are caused to some extent by the fact that there is no generally accepted definition of the SDN concept to date. It is therefore a part of this thesis to derive such a definition. In addition, several of the open issues are investigated. This Investigations follow the three aspects: Performance Evaluation of Software Defined Networking, applications on the SDN control layer, and the usability of SDN Northbound-API for creation application-awareness in network operation.
Performance Evaluation of Software Defined Networking: The question of the efficiency of an SDN-based system was from the beginning one of the most important. In this thesis, experimental measurements of the performance of OpenFlow-enabled switch hardware and control software were conducted for the purpose of answering this question. The results of these measurements were used as input parameters for establishing an analytical model of the reactive SDN approach. Through the model it could be determined that the performance of the software control layer, often called "Controller", is crucial for the overall performance of the system, but that the approach is generally viable. Based on this finding a software for analyzing the performance of SDN controllers was developed. This software allows the emulation of the forwarding layer of an SDN network towards the control software and can thus determine its performance in different situations and configurations. The measurements with this software showed that there are quite significant differences in the behavior of different control software implementations. Among other things it has been shown that some show different characteristics for various switches, in particular in terms of message processing speed. Under certain circumstances this can lead to network failures.
Applications on the SDN control layer: The core piece of software defined networking are the intelligent network applications that operate on the control layer. However, their development is still in its infancy and little is known about the technical possibilities and their limitations. Therefore, the relationship between an SDN-based and classical implementation of a network function is investigated in this thesis. This function is the monitoring of network links and the traffic they carry. A typical approach for this task has been built based on Wiretapping and specialized measurement hardware and compared with an implementation based on OpenFlow switches and a special SDN control application. The results of the comparison show that the SDN version can compete in terms of measurement accuracy for bandwidth and delay estimation with the traditional measurement set-up. However, a compromise has to be found for measurements below the millisecond range.
Another question regarding the SDN control applications is whether and how well they can solve existing problems in networks. Two programs have been developed based on SDN in this thesis to solve two typical network issues. Firstly, the tool "IPOM", which enables considerably more flexibility in the study of effects of network structures for a researcher, who is confined to a fixed physical test network topology.
The second software provides an interface between the Cloud Orchestration Software "OpenNebula" and an OpenFlow controller. The purpose of this software was to investigate experimentally whether a pre-notification of the network of an impending relocation of a virtual service in a data center is sufficient to ensure the continuous operation of that service. This was demonstrated on the example of a video service.
Usability of the SDN Northbound API for creating application-awareness in network operation: Currently, the fact that the network and the applications that run on it are developed and operated separately leads to problems in network operation. SDN offers with the Northbound-API an open interface that enables the exchange between information of both worlds during operation. One aim of this thesis was to investigate whether this interface can be exploited so that the QoE experienced by the user can be maintained on high level. For this purpose, the QoE influence factors were determined on a challenging application by means of a subjective survey study. The application is cloud gaming, in which the calculation of video game environments takes place in the cloud and is transported via video over the network to the user. It was shown that apart from the most important factor influencing QoS, i.e., packet loss on the downlink, also the type of game type and its speed play a role. This demonstrates that in addition to QoS the application state is important and should be communicated to the network. Since an implementation of such a state conscious SDN for the example of Cloud Gaming was not possible due to its proprietary implementation, in this thesis the application “YouTube video streaming” was chosen as an alternative. For this application, status information is retrievable via the "Yomo" tool and can be used for network control. It was shown that an SDN-based implementation of an application-aware network has distinct advantages over traditional network management methods and the user quality can be obtained in spite of disturbances.
Graphs provide a key means to model relationships between entities.
They consist of vertices representing the entities,
and edges representing relationships between pairs of entities.
To make people conceive the structure of a graph,
it is almost inevitable to visualize the graph.
We call such a visualization a graph drawing.
Moreover, we have a straight-line graph drawing
if each vertex is represented as a point
(or a small geometric object, e.g., a rectangle)
and each edge is represented as a line segment between its two vertices.
A polyline is a very simple straight-line graph drawing,
where the vertices form a sequence according to which the vertices are connected by edges.
An example of a polyline in practice is a GPS trajectory.
The underlying road network, in turn, can be modeled as a graph.
This book addresses problems that arise
when working with straight-line graph drawings and polylines.
In particular, we study algorithms
for recognizing certain graphs representable with line segments,
for generating straight-line graph drawings,
and for abstracting polylines.
In the first part, we first examine,
how and in which time we can decide
whether a given graph is a stick graph,
that is, whether its vertices can be represented as
vertical and horizontal line segments on a diagonal line,
which intersect if and only if there is an edge between them.
We then consider the visual complexity of graphs.
Specifically, we investigate, for certain classes of graphs,
how many line segments are necessary for any straight-line graph drawing,
and whether three (or more) different slopes of the line segments
are sufficient to draw all edges.
Last, we study the question,
how to assign (ordered) colors to the vertices of a graph
with both directed and undirected edges
such that no neighboring vertices get the same color
and colors are ascending along directed edges.
Here, the special property of the considered graph is
that the vertices can be represented as intervals
that overlap if and only if there is an edge between them.
The latter problem is motivated by an application
in automated drawing of cable plans with vertical and horizontal line segments,
which we cover in the second part.
We describe an algorithm that
gets the abstract description of a cable plan as input,
and generates a drawing that takes into account
the special properties of these cable plans,
like plugs and groups of wires.
We then experimentally evaluate the quality of the resulting drawings.
In the third part, we study the problem of abstracting (or simplifying)
a single polyline and a bundle of polylines.
In this problem, the objective is to remove as many vertices as possible from the given polyline(s)
while keeping each resulting polyline sufficiently similar to its original course
(according to a given similarity measure).
We use algebraic closures and structures which are derived from these in complexity theory. We classify problems with Boolean circuits and Boolean constraints according to their complexity. We transfer algebraic structures to structural complexity. We use the generation problem to classify important complexity classes.
The success of diagnostic knowledge systems has been proved over the last decades. Nowadays, intelligent systems are embedded in machines within various domains or are used in interaction with a user for solving problems. However, although such systems have been applied very successfully the development of a knowledge system is still a critical issue. Similarly to projects dealing with customized software at a highly innovative level a precise specification often cannot be given in advance. Moreover, necessary requirements of the knowledge system can be defined not until the project has been started or are changing during the development phase. Many success factors depend on the feedback given by users, which can be provided if preliminary demonstrations of the system can be delivered as soon as possible, e.g., for interactive systems validation the duration of the system dialog. This thesis motivates that classical, document-centered approaches cannot be applied in such a setting. We cope with this problem by introducing an agile process model for developing diagnostic knowledge systems, mainly inspired by the ideas of the eXtreme Programming methodology known in software engineering. The main aim of the presented work is to simplify the engineering process for domain specialists formalizing the knowledge themselves. The engineering process is supported at a primary level by the introduction of knowledge containers, that define an organized view of knowledge contained in the system. Consequently, we provide structured procedures as a recommendation for filling these containers. The actual knowledge is acquired and formalized right from start, and the integration to runnable knowledge systems is done continuously in order to allow for an early and concrete feedback. In contrast to related prototyping approaches the validity and maintainability of the collected knowledge is ensured by appropriate test methods and restructuring techniques, respectively. Additionally, we propose learning methods to support the knowledge acquisition process sufficiently. The practical significance of the process model strongly depends on the available tools supporting the application of the process model. We present the system family d3web and especially the system d3web.KnowME as a highly integrated development environment for diagnostic knowledge systems. The process model and its activities, respectively, are evaluated in two real life applications: in a medical and in an environmental project the benefits of the agile development are clearly demonstrated.
In the last years, visual methods have been introduced in industrial software production and teaching of software engineering. In particular, the international standardization of a graphical software engineering language, the Unified Modeling Language (UML) was a reason for this tendency. Unfortunately, various problems exist in concrete realizations of tools, e.g. due to a missing compliance to the standard. One problem is the automatic layout, which is required for a consistent automatic software design. The thesis derives reasons and criteria for an automatic layout method, which produces drawings of UML class diagrams according to the UML specification and issues of human computer interaction, e.g. readability. A unique set of aesthetic criteria is combined from four different disciplines involved in this topic. Based on these aethetic rules, a hierarchical layout algorithm is developed, analyzed, measured by specialized measuring techniques and compared to related work. Then, the realization of the algorithm as a Java framework is given as an architectural description. Finally, adaptions to anticipated future changes of the UML, improvements of the framework and example drawings of the implementation are given.
This work takes a close look at several quite different research areas related to the design of networked embedded sensor/actuator systems. The variety of the topics illustrates the potential complexity of current sensor network applications; especially when enriched with actuators for proactivity and environmental interaction. Besides their conception, development, installation and long-term operation, we'll mainly focus on more "low-level" aspects: Compositional hardware and software design, task cooperation and collaboration, memory management, and real-time operation will be addressed from a local node perspective. In contrast, inter-node synchronization, communication, as well as sensor data acquisition, aggregation, and fusion will be discussed from a rather global network view. The diversity in the concepts was intentionally accepted to finally facilitate the reliable implementation of truly complex systems. In particular, these should go beyond the usual "sense and transmit of sensor data", but show how powerful today's networked sensor/actuator systems can be despite of their low computational performance and constrained hardware: If their resources are only coordinated efficiently!
The progress which has been made in semiconductor chip production in recent years enables a multitude of cores on a single die. However, due to further decreasing structure sizes, fault tolerance and energy consumption will represent key challenges. Furthermore, an efficient communication infrastructure is indispensable due to the high parallelism at those systems. The predominant communication system at such highly parallel systems is a Network on Chip (NoC). The focus of this thesis is on NoCs which are based on deflection routing. In this context, contributions are made to two domains, fault tolerance and dimensioning of the optimal link width. Both aspects are essential for the application of reliable, energy efficient, and deflection routing based NoCs.
It is expected that future semiconductor systems have to cope with high fault probabilities. The inherently given high connectivity of most NoC topologies can be exploited to tolerate the breakdown of links and other components. In this thesis, a fault-tolerant router architecture has been developed, which stands out for the deployed interconnection architecture and the method to overcome complex fault situations. The presented simulation results show, all data packets arrive at their destination, even at high fault probabilities. In contrast to routing table based architectures, the hardware costs of the herein presented architecture are lower and, in particular, independent of the number of components in the network.
Besides fault tolerance, hardware costs and energy efficiency are of great importance. The utilized link width has a decisive influence on these aspects. In particular, at deflection routing based NoCs, over- and under-sizing of the link width leads to unnecessary high hardware costs and bad performance, respectively. In the second part of this thesis, the optimal link width at deflection routing based NoCs is investigated. Additionally, a method to reduce the link width is introduced. Simulation and synthesis results show, the herein presented method allows a significant reduction of hardware costs at comparable performance.
The importance of Clinical Data Warehouses (CDW) has increased significantly in recent years as they support or enable many applications such as clinical trials, data mining, and decision making.
CDWs integrate Electronic Health Records which still contain a large amount of text data, such as discharge letters or reports on diagnostic findings in addition to structured and coded data like ICD-codes of diagnoses.
Existing CDWs hardly support features to gain information covered in texts.
Information extraction methods offer a solution for this problem but they have a high and long development effort, which can only be carried out by computer scientists.
Moreover, such systems only exist for a few medical domains.
This paper presents a method empowering clinicians to extract information from texts on their own. Medical concepts can be extracted ad hoc from e.g. discharge letters, thus physicians can work promptly and autonomously. The proposed system achieves these improvements by efficient data storage, preprocessing, and with powerful query features. Negations in texts are recognized and automatically excluded, as well as the context of information is determined and undesired facts are filtered, such as historical events or references to other persons (family history).
Context-sensitive queries ensure the semantic integrity of the concepts to be extracted.
A new feature not available in other CDWs is to query numerical concepts in texts and even filter them (e.g. BMI > 25).
The retrieved values can be extracted and exported for further analysis.
This technique is implemented within the efficient architecture of the PaDaWaN CDW and evaluated with comprehensive and complex tests.
The results outperform similar approaches reported in the literature.
Ad hoc IE determines the results in a few (milli-) seconds and a user friendly GUI enables interactive working, allowing flexible adaptation of the extraction.
In addition, the applicability of this system is demonstrated in three real-world applications at the Würzburg University Hospital (UKW).
Several drug trend studies are replicated: Findings of five studies on high blood pressure, atrial fibrillation and chronic renal failure can be partially or completely confirmed in the UKW. Another case study evaluates the prevalence of heart failure in inpatient hospitals using an algorithm that extracts information with ad hoc IE from discharge letters and echocardiogram report (e.g. LVEF < 45 ) and other sources of the hospital information system.
This study reveals that the use of ICD codes leads to a significant underestimation (31%) of the true prevalence of heart failure.
The third case study evaluates the consistency of diagnoses by comparing structured ICD-10-coded diagnoses with the diagnoses described in the diagnostic section of the discharge letter.
These diagnoses are extracted from texts with ad hoc IE, using synonyms generated with a novel method.
The developed approach can extract diagnoses from the discharge letter with a high accuracy and furthermore it can prove the degree of consistency between the coded and reported diagnoses.
Today knowledge base authoring for the engineering of intelligent systems is performed mainly by using tools with graphical user interfaces. An alternative human-computer interaction para- digm is the maintenance and manipulation of electronic documents, which provides several ad- vantages with respect to the social aspects of knowledge acquisition. Until today it hardly has found any attention as a method for knowledge engineering.
This thesis provides a comprehensive discussion of document-centered knowledge acquisition with knowledge markup languages. There, electronic documents are edited by the knowledge authors and the executable knowledge base entities are captured by markup language expressions within the documents. The analysis of this approach reveals significant advantages as well as new challenges when compared to the use of traditional GUI-based tools.
Some advantages of the approach are the low barriers for domain expert participation, the simple integration of informal descriptions, and the possibility of incremental knowledge for- malization. It therefore provides good conditions for building up a knowledge acquisition pro- cess based on the mixed-initiative strategy, being a flexible combination of direct and indirect knowledge acquisition. Further it turns out that document-centered knowledge acquisition with knowledge markup languages provides high potential for creating customized knowledge au- thoring environments, tailored to the needs of the current knowledge engineering project and its participants. The thesis derives a process model to optimally exploit this customization po- tential, evolving a project specific authoring environment by an agile process on the meta level. This meta-engineering process continuously refines the three aspects of the document space: The employed markup languages, the scope of the informal knowledge, and the structuring and organization of the documents. The evolution of the first aspect, the markup languages, plays a key role, implying the design of project specific markup languages that are easily understood by the knowledge authors and that are suitable to capture the required formal knowledge precisely. The goal of the meta-engineering process is to create a knowledge authoring environment, where structure and presentation of the domain knowledge comply well to the users’ mental model of the domain. In that way, the approach can help to ease major issues of knowledge-based system development, such as high initial development costs and long-term maintenance problems.
In practice, the application of the meta-engineering approach for document-centered knowl- edge acquisition poses several technical challenges that need to be coped with by appropriate tool support. In this thesis KnowWE, an extensible document-centered knowledge acquisition environment is presented. The system is designed to support the technical tasks implied by the meta-engineering approach, as for instance design and implementation of new markup lan- guages, content refactoring, and authoring support. It is used to evaluate the approach in several real-world case-studies from different domains, such as medicine or engineering for instance.
We end the thesis by a summary and point out further interesting research questions consid- ering the document-centered knowledge acquisition approach.