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Atherosclerosis is an important risk factor in the development of cardiovascular diseases. In addition to increased plasma lipid concentrations, irregular/oscillatory shear stress and inflammatory processes trigger atherosclerosis. Inhibitors of the transcription modulatory bromo- and extra-terminal domain (BET) protein family (BETi) could offer a possible therapeutic approach due to their epigenetic mechanism and anti-inflammatory properties. In this study, the influence of laminar shear stress, inflammation and BETi treatment on human endothelial cells was investigated using global protein expression profiling by ion mobility separation-enhanced data independent acquisition mass spectrometry (IMS-DIA-MS). For this purpose, primary human umbilical cord derived vascular endothelial cells were treated with TNFα to mimic inflammation and exposed to laminar shear stress in the presence or absence of the BRD4 inhibitor JQ1. IMS-DIA-MS detected over 4037 proteins expressed in endothelial cells. Inflammation, shear stress and BETi led to pronounced changes in protein expression patterns with JQ1 having the greatest effect. To our knowledge, this is the first proteomics study on primary endothelial cells, which provides an extensive database for the effects of shear stress, inflammation and BETi on the endothelial proteome.
Atherosclerosis is an inflammatory disease of large and medium-sized arteries, characterized by the growth of atherosclerotic lesions (plaques). These plaques often develop at inner curvatures of arteries, branchpoints, and bifurcations, where the endothelial wall shear stress is low and oscillatory. In conjunction with other processes such as lipid deposition, biomechanical factors lead to local vascular inflammation and plaque growth. There is also evidence that low and oscillatory shear stress contribute to arterial remodeling, entailing a loss in arterial elasticity and, therefore, an increased pulse-wave velocity. Although altered shear stress profiles, elasticity and inflammation are closely intertwined and critical for plaque growth, preclinical and clinical investigations for atherosclerosis mostly focus on the investigation of one of these parameters only due to the experimental limitations. However, cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has been demonstrated to be a potent tool which can be used to provide insights into a large range of biological parameters in one experimental session. It enables the evaluation of the dynamic process of atherosclerotic lesion formation without the need for harmful radiation. Flow-sensitive MRI provides the assessment of hemodynamic parameters such as wall shear stress and pulse wave velocity which may replace invasive and radiation-based techniques for imaging of the vascular
function and the characterization of early plaque development. In combination with inflammation imaging, the analyses and correlations of these parameters could not only significantly advance basic preclinical investigations of atherosclerotic lesion formation and progression, but also the diagnostic clinical evaluation for early identification of high-risk plaques, which are prone to rupture. In this review, we summarize the key applications of magnetic resonance imaging for the evaluation of plaque characteristics through flow sensitive and morphological measurements. The simultaneous measurements of functional and structural parameters will further preclinical research on atherosclerosis and has the potential to fundamentally improve the detection of inflammation and vulnerable plaques in patients.
The MEK5/ERK5 mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK) cascade is a unique signaling module activated by both mitogens and stress stimuli, including cytokines, fluid shear stress, high osmolarity, and oxidative stress. Physiologically, it is mainly known as a mechanoreceptive pathway in the endothelium, where it transduces the various vasoprotective effects of laminar blood flow. However, it also maintains integrity in other tissues exposed to mechanical stress, including bone, cartilage, and muscle, where it exerts a key function as a survival and differentiation pathway. Beyond its diverse physiological roles, the MEK5/ERK5 pathway has also been implicated in various diseases, including cancer, where it has recently emerged as a major escape route, sustaining tumor cell survival and proliferation under drug stress. In addition, MEK5/ERK5 dysfunction may foster cardiovascular diseases such as atherosclerosis. Here, we highlight the importance of the MEK5/ERK5 pathway in health and disease, focusing on its role as a protective cascade in mechanical stress-exposed healthy tissues and its function as a therapy resistance pathway in cancers. We discuss the perspective of targeting this cascade for cancer treatment and weigh its chances and potential risks when considering its emerging role as a protective stress response pathway.
Growth, ageing and atherosclerotic plaque development alter the biomechanical forces acting on the vessel wall. However, monitoring the detailed local changes in wall shear stress (WSS) at distinct sites of the murine aortic arch over time has been challenging. Here, we studied the temporal and spatial changes in flow, WSS, oscillatory shear index (OSI) and elastic properties of healthy wildtype (WT, n = 5) and atherosclerotic apolipoprotein E-deficient (Apoe\(^{−/−}\), n = 6) mice during ageing and atherosclerosis using high-resolution 4D flow magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Spatially resolved 2D projection maps of WSS and OSI of the complete aortic arch were generated, allowing the pixel-wise statistical analysis of inter- and intragroup hemodynamic changes over time and local correlations between WSS, pulse wave velocity (PWV), plaque and vessel wall characteristics. The study revealed converse differences of local hemodynamic profiles in healthy WT and atherosclerotic Apoe\(^{−/−}\) mice, and we identified the circumferential WSS as potential marker of plaque size and composition in advanced atherosclerosis and the radial strain as a potential marker for vascular elasticity. Two-dimensional (2D) projection maps of WSS and OSI, including statistical analysis provide a powerful tool to monitor local aortic hemodynamics during ageing and atherosclerosis. The correlation of spatially resolved hemodynamics and plaque characteristics could significantly improve our understanding of the impact of hemodynamics on atherosclerosis, which may be key to understand plaque progression towards vulnerability.
Simultaneous measurements of 3D wall shear stress and pulse wave velocity in the murine aortic arch
(2021)
Purpose
Wall shear stress (WSS) and pulse wave velocity (PWV) are important parameters to characterize blood flow in the vessel wall. Their quantification with flow-sensitive phase-contrast (PC) cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR), however, is time-consuming. Furthermore, the measurement of WSS requires high spatial resolution, whereas high temporal resolution is necessary for PWV measurements. For these reasons, PWV and WSS are challenging to measure in one CMR session, making it difficult to directly compare these parameters. By using a retrospective approach with a flexible reconstruction framework, we here aimed to simultaneously assess both PWV and WSS in the murine aortic arch from the same 4D flow measurement.
Methods
Flow was measured in the aortic arch of 18-week-old wildtype (n = 5) and ApoE\(^{−/−}\) mice (n = 5) with a self-navigated radial 4D-PC-CMR sequence. Retrospective data analysis was used to reconstruct the same dataset either at low spatial and high temporal resolution (PWV analysis) or high spatial and low temporal resolution (WSS analysis). To assess WSS, the aortic lumen was labeled by semi-automatically segmenting the reconstruction with high spatial resolution. WSS was determined from the spatial velocity gradients at the lumen surface. For calculation of the PWV, segmentation data was interpolated along the temporal dimension. Subsequently, PWV was quantified from the through-plane flow data using the multiple-points transit-time method. Reconstructions with varying frame rates and spatial resolutions were performed to investigate the influence of spatiotemporal resolution on the PWV and WSS quantification.
Results
4D flow measurements were conducted in an acquisition time of only 35 min. Increased peak flow and peak WSS values and lower errors in PWV estimation were observed in the reconstructions with high temporal resolution. Aortic PWV was significantly increased in ApoE\(^{−/−}\) mice compared to the control group (1.7 ± 0.2 versus 2.6 ± 0.2 m/s, p < 0.001). Mean WSS magnitude values averaged over the aortic arch were (1.17 ± 0.07) N/m\(^2\) in wildtype mice and (1.27 ± 0.10) N/m\(^2\) in ApoE\(^{−/−}\) mice.
Conclusion
The post processing algorithm using the flexible reconstruction framework developed in this study permitted quantification of global PWV and 3D-WSS in a single acquisition. The possibility to assess both parameters in only 35 min will markedly improve the analyses and information content of in vivo measurements.
Functional versus morphological assessment of vascular age in patients with coronary heart disease
(2021)
Communicating cardiovascular risk based on individual vascular age (VA) is a well acknowledged concept in patient education and disease prevention. VA may be derived functionally, e.g. by measurement of pulse wave velocity (PWV), or morphologically, e.g. by assessment of carotid intima-media thickness (cIMT). The purpose of this study was to investigate whether both approaches produce similar results. Within the context of the German subset of the EUROASPIRE IV survey, 501 patients with coronary heart disease underwent (a) oscillometric PWV measurement at the aortic, carotid-femoral and brachial-ankle site (PWVao, PWVcf, PWVba) and derivation of the aortic augmentation index (AIao); (b) bilateral cIMT assessment by high-resolution ultrasound at three sites (common, bulb, internal). Respective VA was calculated using published equations. According to VA derived from PWV, most patients exhibited values below chronological age indicating a counterintuitive healthier-than-anticipated vascular status: for VA(PWVao) in 68% of patients; for VA\(_{AIao}\) in 52% of patients. By contrast, VA derived from cIMT delivered opposite results: e.g. according to VA\(_{total-cIMT}\) accelerated vascular aging in 75% of patients. To strengthen the concept of VA, further efforts are needed to better standardise the current approaches to estimate VA and, thereby, to improve comparability and clinical utility.
Atherosclerotic lesions are populated by cells of the innate and adaptive immune system, including CD8\(^+\) T cells. The CD8\(^+\) T cell infiltrate has recently been characterized in mouse and human atherosclerosis and revealed activated, cytotoxic, and possibly dysfunctional and exhausted cell phenotypes. In mouse models of atherosclerosis, antibody-mediated depletion of CD8\(^+\) T cells ameliorates atherosclerosis. CD8\(^+\) T cells control monopoiesis and macrophage accumulation in early atherosclerosis. In addition, CD8\(^+\) T cells exert cytotoxic functions in atherosclerotic plaques and contribute to macrophage cell death and necrotic core formation. CD8\(^+\) T cell activation may be antigen-specific, and epitopes of atherosclerosis-relevant antigens may be targets of CD8\(^+\) T cells and their cytotoxic activity. CD8\(^+\) T cell functions are tightly controlled by costimulatory and coinhibitory immune checkpoints. Subsets of regulatory CD25\(^+\)CD8\(^+\) T cells with immunosuppressive functions can inhibit atherosclerosis. Importantly, local cytotoxic CD8\(^+\) T cell responses may trigger endothelial damage and plaque erosion in acute coronary syndromes. Understanding the complex role of CD8\(^+\) T cells in atherosclerosis may pave the way for defining novel treatment approaches in atherosclerosis. In this review article, we discuss these aspects, highlighting the emerging and critical role of CD8\(^+\) T cells in atherosclerosis.
CCR6 kontrolliert selektiv die Monozyten-vermittelte Entzündungsreaktion in der Atherosklerose
(2019)
Der Chemokinrezeptor CCR6 wird von einer Vielzahl unterschiedener Zelltypen exprimiert,
wie zum Beispiel Monozyten, Th17-Zellen und regulatorische T-Zellen,
die im Zusammenhang mit der Entstehung von Atherosklerose stehen. Um die
Bedeutung von CCR6 in der Pathogenese der Atherosklerose bestimmen zu können,
wurden CCR6-defiziente (Ccr6-/- ) Mäuse mit low-density lipoprotein receptordefizienten
(Ldlr-/-) Mäusen gekreuzt, um Tiere zu erhalten, die anfällig für Atherosklerose
und zudem CCR6-defizient sind. Nach acht Wochen pro-atherogener, fettreicher
western-type diet war die Ausprägung der atherosklerotischen Läsionen im
Aortensinus und der gesamten Aorta, sowie deren Gehalt an Plaquemakrophagen in
den Ccr6-/-Ldlr-/- Tieren im Vergleich zu den Ldlr-/- Kontrolltieren signifikant vermindert.
Die lokale und die systemische Verteilung von T-Zellen sowie die Häufigkeit
von Th1-, Th17-Zellen und regulatorischen T-Zellen blieb hingegen unverändert. Im
Gegensatz dazu reduzierte sich die Zahl der im Blut zirkulierenden Gr-1high und
Gr-1low Monozyten in den Ccr6-/-Ldlr-/- Tieren deutlich. Weiter konnte gezeigt werden,
dass über CCR6 in vitro die Adhäsion von Monozyten an inflammatorisch
verändertem Endothel und in vivo die Adhäsion von Leukozyten an das Endothel
der Karotiden vermittelt wird. Des Weiteren wurden in einem air pouch-Modell für
akute Entzündungsreaktionen mittels CCR6 spezifisch Monozyten, aber keine TZellen
rekrutiert.
Summa summarum konnte die Bedeutung von CCR6 auf verschiedenen Ebenen
der Pathogenese der Atherosklerose gezeigt werden: Während CCR6 für die Hypercholesterinämie
assoziierte adaptive Immunantwort entbehrlich ist, reguliert es
die Mobilisierung, Adhäsion und Rekrutierung von Monozyten und kontrolliert über
diese Mechanismen die Akkumulation von Makrophagen und Genese atherosklerotischer
Läsionen. CCR6 und sein Ligand CCL20 könnten somit vielversprechende
Ziele neuer pharmakologischer Therapieansätze sein, um auch die Atherogenese im
Menschen zu unterbinden.
Die Ergebnisse der Dissertation wurden im Dezember 2013 im Journal Thrombosis
and Haematostasis unter dem Titel “CCR6 selectively promotes monocyte mediated
inflammation and atherogenesis in mice“ in geteilter Erstautorenschaft von
Helga Manthey, Clément Cochain und Stefanie Barnsteiner veröffentlicht (PMID:
24114205).
Atherosclerosis is the main underlying cause for cardiovascular events such as myocardial infarction and stroke and its development might be influenced by immune cells. Dendritic cells (DCs) bridge innate and adaptive immune responses by presenting antigens to T cells and releasing a variety of cytokines. Several subsets of DCs can be discriminated that engage specific transcriptional pathways for their development. Basic leucine zipper transcription factor ATF-like 3 (Batf3) is required for the development of classical CD8α\(^{+}\) and CD103\(^{+}\) DCs. By crossing mice deficient in Batf3 with atherosclerosis-prone low density lipoprotein receptor (Ldlr\(^{−/-}\))-deficient mice we here aimed to further address the contribution of Batf3-dependent CD8α\(^{+}\) and CD103\(^{+}\) antigen-presenting cells to atherosclerosis. We demonstrate that deficiency in Batf3 entailed mild effects on the immune response in the spleen but did not alter atherosclerotic lesion formation in the aorta or aortic root, nor affected plaque phenotype in low density lipoprotein receptor-deficient mice fed a high fat diet. We thus provide evidence that Batf3-dependent antigen-presenting cells do not have a prominent role in atherosclerosis.
Die Arteriosklerose ist ein chronisch entzündlicher Prozess der Gefäßwand, in dem CD4+CD25+FoxP3+ regulatorische T-Zellen („\(T_{reg}\)“) eine atheroprotektive Rolle spielen. Durch exogenen \(T_{reg}\)-Transfer konnten andere Gruppen eine Reduktion der Arteriosklerose nachweisen. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde die Aktivität der endogenen Treg durch spezielle Antikörper modifiziert, ihr Einfluss auf die Entwicklung arteriosklerotischer Plaques in ApoEko-Mäusen untersucht sowie eine mögliche Abhängigkeit dieser Wirkung vom zellulären Immunstatus des Wirts geprüft.
Im Abstand von 28 Tagen wurde weiblichen ApoEko-Mäusen zweimal der CD28-spezifische superagonistische monoklonale Antikörper D665 injiziert, um eine polyklonale Vermehrung ihrer \(T_{reg}\) anzuregen. In einer zweiten Versuchsreihe wurden endogene \(T_{reg}\) zweimal im Abstand von 28 Tagen durch Gabe eines CD25-spezifischen Antikörpers (PC61) zunächst depletiert und jeweils 7 Tage später durch D665 geboostert, um den Effekt der \(T_{reg}\) auf ein initial Treg defizientes Tiermodell zu testen. Verglichen wurde mit der alleinigen Treg-Depletion durch PC61 sowie mit einem Kontrollantikörper (Isotyp-IgG, MOPC). Die Quantifizierung der Arterioskleroseentwicklung erfolgte mittels Planimetrie der Plaquefläche der Aorta. Die Wirksamkeit der Antikörper auf die \(T_{reg}\)-Konzentrationen wurde mittels FACS-Analysen aus Blut und Milz untersucht.
Nach alleiniger \(T_{reg}\)-Amplifikation durch D665-Injektion zeigte sich kein Unterschied in der prozentualen Plaquefläche im Vergleich zur Kontrollgruppe. Auch eine alleinige Depletion mit PC61 zeigte keine Veränderungen in der Läsionsfläche. Durch Kombination beider Antikörper jedoch kam es nach Treg-Depletion mittels PC61, gefolgt von Treg-stimulierender D665-Behandlung, zu einer signifikanten Verminderung der prozentualen Plaquefläche der Aorta um 32,02% im Vergleich zur MOPC Kontrolle und um 28,73% im Vergleich zur alleinigen \(T_{reg}\)-Depletion mit PC61+MOPC. Die FACS-Analysen bestätigten eine signifikante Depletion durch PC61-Injektion sowie eine signifikante Zunahme der Treg eine Woche nach D665-Injektion.
Die Stimulation regulatorischer T-Zellen in einem Treg-defizienten arteriosklerotischen Tiermodell reduzierte die aortale arteriosklerotische Läsionsfläche signifikant. In der immunkompetenten ApoEko Maus jedoch bewirkte die alleinige Vermehrung oder die alleinige Depletion regulatorischer T-Zellen keine messbare Veränderung in der Plaqueentwicklung. Diese Arbeit zeigt, dass ein Zusammenhang zwischen der Wirksamkeit regulatorischer T-Zellen und der inflammatorischen Veränderung der Gefäßwand besteht.