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Surface systems attract great scientific attention due to novel and exotic properties. The atomically structured surfaces lead to a reduced dimensionality which alters electronic correlations, vibrational properties, and their impact on each other. The emerging physical phenomena are not observed for related bulk materials. In this thesis, ordered (sub)monolayers of metal atoms (Au and Sn) on semiconductor substrates (Si(111) and Ge(111)) and ultrathin intermetallic films (CePt5 and LaPt5) on metal substrate (Pt(111)) are investigated by polarized in situ surface Raman spectroscopy. The surface Raman spectra exhibit features of specific elementary excitations like surface phonons and electronic excitations, which are suitable to gain fundamental insights into the surface systems.
The Au-induced surface reconstructions (5x2) and (r3xr3) constitute quasi-one- and two-dimensional Au structures on the Si(111) substrate, respectively. The new reconstruction-related Raman peaks are analyzed with respect to their polarization and temperature behavior. The Raman results are combined with firstprinciples calculations to decide between different proposed structural models. The Au-(5x2)/Si(111) reconstruction is best described by the model of Kwon and Kang, while for Au-(r3xr3)/Si(111) the conjugate honeycomb-chained-trimer model is favored. The Sn-induced reconstructions with 1/3 monolayer on Ge(111) and Si(111) are investigated to reveal their extraordinary temperature behavior. Specific surface phonon modes are identified that are predicted within the dynamical fluctuation model. Contrary to Sn/Si(111), the corresponding vibrational mode of Sn/Ge(111) exhibits a nearly harmonic character. The reversible structural phase transition of Sn/Ge(111) from (r3xr3) to (3x3) is observed, while no phase transition is apparent for Sn/Si(111). Moreover, Raman spectra of the closely related systems Sn-(2r3x2r3)/Si(111) and thin films of a-Sn as well as the clean semiconductor surfaces Si(111)-(7x7) and Ge(111)-c(2x8) are evaluated and compared.
The CePt5/Pt(111) system hosts 4f electrons whose energy levels are modified by the crystal field and are relevant for a description of the observed Kondo physics. In contrast, isostructural LaPt5/Pt(111) has no 4f electrons. For CePt5/Pt(111), distinct Raman features due to electronic Raman scattering can be unambiguously related to transitions between the crystal-field states which are depth-dependent. This assignment is supported by comparison to LaPt5/Pt(111) and group theoretical considerations. Furthermore, the vibrational properties of CePt5 and LaPt5 reveal interesting similarities but also striking differences like an unusual temperature shift of a vibration mode of CePt5, which is related to the influence of 4f electrons.
Due to their complex chemical structure transition metal oxides display many fascinating properties which conventional semiconductors lack.
For this reason transition metal oxides hold a lot of promise for novel electronic functionalities.
Just as in conventional semiconductor heterostructures, the interfaces between different materials play a key role in oxide electronics.
The textbook example is the (001) interface between the band insulators LaAlO\(_3\) and SrTiO\(_3\) at which a two-dimensional electron system (2DES) forms.
In order to utilize such a 2DES in prospective electronic devices, it is vital that the electronic properties of the interface can be controlled and manipulated at will.
Employing photoelectron spectroscopy as well as electronic transport measurements, this thesis examines how such interface engineering can be realized in the case of the LaAlO\(_3\)/SrTiO\(_3\) heterostructure:
By photoemission we manage to unambiguously distinguish the different mechanisms by which SrTiO\(_3\) can be doped with electrons.
An electronic reconstruction is identified as the driving mechanism to render stoichiometric LaAlO\(_3\)/SrTiO\(_3\) interfaces metallic.
The doping of the LaAlO\(_3\)/SrTiO\(_3\) heterointerface can furthermore be finely adjusted by changing the oxygen vacancy \(V_{\mathrm{O}}\) concentration in the heterostructure.
Combining intense x-ray irradiation with oxygen dosing, we even achieve control over the \(V_{\mathrm{O}}\) concentration and, consequently, the doping in the photoemission experiment itself.
Exploiting this method, we investigate how the band diagram of SrTiO\(_3\)-based heterostructures changes as a function of the \(V_{\mathrm{O}}\) concentration and temperature by hard x-ray photoemission spectroscopy.
With the band bending in the SrTiO\(_3\) substrate changing as a function of the \(V_{\mathrm{O}}\) concentration, the interfacial band alignment is found to vary as well.
The relative permittivity of the SrTiO\(_3\) substrate and, in particular, its dependence on temperature and electric field is identified as one of the essential parameters determining the electronic interface properties.
That is also why the sample temperature affects the charge carrier distribution.
The mobile charge carriers are shown to shift toward the SrTiO\(_3\) bulk when the sample temperature is lowered.
This effect is, however, only pronounced if the total charge carrier concentration is small.
At high charge carrier concentrations the charge carriers are always confined to the interface, independent of the sample temperature.
The dependence of the electronic interface properties on the \(V_{\mathrm{O}}\) concentration is also investigated by a complementary method, viz. by electronic transport measurements.
These experiments confirm that the mobile charge carrier concentration increases concomitantly to the \(V_{\mathrm{O}}\) concentration.
The mobility of the charge carriers changes as well depending on the \(V_{\mathrm{O}}\) concentration.
Comparing spectroscopy and transport results, we are able to draw conclusions about the processes limiting the mobility in electronic transport.
We furthermore build a memristor device from our LaAlO\(_3\)/SrTiO\(_3\) heterostructures and demonstrate how interface engineering is used in practice in such novel electronic applications.
This thesis furthermore investigates how the electronic structure of the 2DES is affected by the interface topology:
We show that, akin to the (001) LaAlO\(_3\)/SrTiO\(_3\) heterointerface, an electronic reconstruction also renders the (111) interface between LaAlO\(_3\) and SrTiO\(_3\) metallic.
The change in interface topology becomes evident in the Fermi surface of the buried 2DES which is probed by soft x-ray photoemission.
Based on the asymmetry in the Fermi surface, we estimate the extension of the conductive layer in the (111)-oriented LaAlO\(_3\)/SrTiO\(_3\) heterostructure.
The spectral function measured furthermore identifies the charge carriers at the interface as large polarons.
Main focus of the present dissertation was to gain new insight about the interaction between magnetic ions and the conduction band of diluted magnetic semiconductors. This interaction in magnetic semiconductors with carrier concentrations near the metal-insulator transition (MIT) in an external magnetic field is barely researched. Hence, n-doped Zn1−xMnxSe:Cl samples were studied.
Resonant Raman spectroscopy was employed at an external magnetic field between 1T and 7T and a temperature of 1.5K.
The resulting magnetization of the material amplifies the splitting of states with opposite spins both in the valence and the conduction band. This is known as the "giant-Zeeman-effect".
In this thesis, the resonance of the electron spin flip process, i.e. the enhancement of the signal depending on the excitation energy, was used as an indicator to determine the density of states of the charge carriers. The measured resonance profiles of each sample showed a structure, which consist of two partially overlapping Gaussian curves. The analysis of the Gaussian curves revealed that their respective maxima are separated independent of the magnetic field strenght by about 5 meV, which matches the binding energy of the donor bound exciton (D0, X).
A widening of the full width at half maximum of the resonance profile was observed with increasing magnetic field. A detailed analysis of this behavior showed that the donor bound exciton spin flip resonance primarily accounts for the widening for all samples with doping concentrations below the metal insulator transition. A model was proposed for the interpretation of this observation.
This is based on the fundamental assumptions of a spatially random distribution of the manganese ions on the group-II sublattice of the ZnSe crystal and the finite extension of the excitons. Thus, each exciton covers an individual quantity of manganese ions, which manifest as a local manganese concentration. This local manganese concentration is normally distributed for a set of excitons and hence, the evaluation of the distribution allows the determination of exciton radii
Two trends were identified for the (D0, X) radii. The radius of the bound exciton decreases with increasing carrier concentration as well as with increasing manganese concentration. The determination of the (D0, X) radii by the use of resonant spin flip Raman spectroscopy and also the observation of the behavior of the (D0, X) radius depending on the carrier concentration, was achieved for the first time.
For all samples with carrier concentrations below the metal-insulator transition, the obtained (X0) radii are up to a factor of 5.9 larger than the respective (D0, X) radii. This observation is explained by the unbound character of the (X0).
For the first time, such an observation could be made by Raman spectroscopy.Beside the resonance studies, the shape of the Raman signal of the electron spin flip was analyzed. Thereby an obvious asymmetry of the signal, with a clear flank to lower Raman shifts, was observed. This asymmetry is most pronounced, when the spin flip process is excited near the (D0, X) resonance.
To explain this observation, a theoretical model was introduced in this thesis. Based on the asymmetry of the resonantly excited spin flip signal, it was possible to estimate the (D0, X) radii, too. At external magnetic fields between 1.25T and 7T, the obtained radii lie between 2.38nm and 2.75nm.
Additionally, the asymmetry of the electron spin flip signal was observed at different excitation energies. Here it is striking that the asymmetry vanishes with increasing excitation energy. At the highest excitation energy, where the electron spin flip was still detectable, the estimated radius of the exciton is 3.92nm.
Beside the observations on the electron spin flip, the resonance behavior of the spin flip processes in the d-shell of the incorporated Mn ions was studied in this thesis. This was performed for the direct Mn spin flip process as well as for the sum process of the longitudinal optical phonon with the Mn spin flip. For the Stokes and anti-Stokes direct spin flip process and for the Stokes sum process, each the resonance curve is described by considering only one resonance mechanism. In contrast, resonance for the sum process in which an anti-Stokes Mn spin flip is involved, consists of two partially overlapping resonances due to different mechanisms. A detailed analysis of this resonance profile showed that for (Zn,Mn)Se at the chosen experimental parameters, an
incoming and outgoing resonance can be achieved, separated by a few meV.
Hereby, at a specific excitation energy range and a high excitation power, it was possible to achieve an inversion of the anti-Stokes to Stokes intensity, because only the anti-Stokes Mn spin flip process was enhanced resonantly.
Space- and time-resolved UV-to-NIR surface spectroscopy and 2D nanoscopy at 1 MHz repetition rate
(2019)
We describe a setup for time-resolved photoemission electron microscopy (TRPEEM) with aberration correction enabling 3 nm spatial resolution and sub-20 fs temporal resolution. The latter is realized by our development of a widely tunable (215–970 nm) noncollinear optical parametric amplifier (NOPA) at 1 MHz repetition rate. We discuss several exemplary applications. Efficient photoemission from plasmonic Au nanoresonators is investigated with phase-coherent pulse pairs from an actively stabilized interferometer. More complex excitation fields are created with a liquid-crystal-based pulse shaper enabling amplitude and phase shaping of NOPA pulses with spectral components from 600 to 800 nm. With this system we demonstrate spectroscopy within a single plasmonic nanoslit resonator by spectral amplitude shaping and investigate the local field dynamics with coherent two-dimensional (2D) spectroscopy at the nanometer length scale (“2D nanoscopy”). We show that the local response varies across a distance as small as 33 nm in our sample. Further, we report two-color pump–probe experiments using two independent NOPA beamlines. We extract local variations of the excited-state dynamics of a monolayered 2D material (WSe2) that we correlate with low-energy electron microscopy (LEEM) and reflectivity (LEER) measurements. Finally, we demonstrate the in-situ sample preparation capabilities for organic thin films and their characterization via spatially resolved electron diffraction and dark-field LEEM.
Topologische Isolatoren gehören zu einer Klasse von Materialien, an deren Realisation im Rahmen der zweiten quantenmechanischen Revolution gearbeitet wird. Einerseits sind zahlreiche Fragestellungen zu diesen Materialen und deren Nutzbarmachung noch nicht beantwortet, andererseits treiben vielversprechende Anwendungen im Feld der Quantencomputer und Spintronik die Lösung dieser Fragen voran. Topologische Rand- bzw. Oberflächenzustände wurden für unterschiedlichste Materialien und Strukturen theoretisch vorhergesagt, so auch für GaSb/InAs Doppelquantenfilme und Bi2Se3. Trotz intensiver Forschungsarbeiten und großer Fortschritte bedürfen viele Prozesse v. a. im Bereich der Probenherstellung und Verarbeitung noch der Optimierung. Die vorliegende Arbeit präsentiert Ergebnisse zur Molekularstahlepitaxie, zur Probenfertigung sowie zu elektro-optisch modulierter Transportuntersuchung von GaSb/InAs Doppelquantenfilmen und der epitaktischen Fertigung von Bi2Se3 Nanostrukturen.
Im ersten Teil dieser Arbeit werden die Parameter zur Molekularstrahlepitaxie sowie die Anpassung der Probenfertigung von GaSb/InAs Doppelquantenfilmen an material- und untersuchungsbedingte Notwendigkeiten beschrieben. Dieser verbesserte Prozess ermöglicht die Fertigung quantitativ vergleichbarer Probenserien. Anschließend werden Ergebnisse für Strukturen mit variabler InAs Schichtdicke unter elektrostatischer Kontrolle mit einem Frontgate präsentiert. Auch mit verbessertem Prozess zeigten sich Leckströme zum Substrat. Diese erschweren eine elektrostatische Kontrolle über Backgates. Die erstmals durch optische Anregung präsentierte Manipulation der Ladungsträgerart sowie des Phasenzustandes in GaSb/InAs Doppelquantenfilmen bietet eine Alternative zu problembehafteten elektrostatisch betriebenen Gates.
Im zweiten Teil wird die epitaktische Herstellung von Bi2Se3 Nanostrukturen gezeigt. Mit dem Ziel, Vorteile aus dem erhöhten Oberfläche-zu-Volumen Verhältnis zu ziehen, wurden im Rahmen dieser Arbeit erstmals Bi2Se3 Nanodrähte und -flocken mittels Molekularstrahlepitaxie für die Verwendung als topologischer Isolator hergestellt.
Ein Quantensprung – Kapitel 1 führt über die umgangssprachliche Wortbedeutung des Quantensprungs und des damit verbundenen Modells der Quantenmechanik in das Thema. Die Anwendung dieses Modells auf Quanten-Ensembles und dessen technische Realisation wird heute als erste Quantenmechanische Revolution bezeichnet und ist aus unserem Alltag nicht mehr wegzudenken. Im Rahmen der zweiten Quantenmechanischen Revolution soll nun die Anwendung auf einzelne Zustände realisiert und technisch nutzbar gemacht werden. Hierbei sind topologische Isolatoren ein vielversprechender Baustein. Es werden das Konzept des topologischen Isolators sowie die Eigenschaften der beiden in dieser Arbeit betrachteten Systeme beschrieben: GaSb/InAs Doppelquantenfilme und Bi2Se3 Nanostrukturen.
GaSb/InAs Doppelquantenfilme
Kapitel 2 beschreibt die notwendigen physikalischen und technischen Grundlagen. Ausgehend von der Entdeckung des Hall-Effekts 1879 werden die Quanten-Hall-Effekte eingeführt. Quanten-Spin-Hall-Isolatoren oder allgemeiner topologische Isolatoren sind Materialien mit einem isolierenden Inneren, weisen an der Oberfläche aber topologisch geschützte Zustände auf. Doppelquantenfilme aus GaSb/InAs, die in AlSb gebettet werden, weisen – abhängig vom Aufbau der Heterostruktur – eine typische invertierte Bandstruktur auf und sind ein vielversprechender Kandidat für die Nutzbarmachung der topologischen Isolatoren. GaSb, InAs und AlSb gehören zur 6,1 Ångström-Familie, welche für ihre opto-elektronischen Eigenschaften bekannt ist und häufig verwendet wird. Die Eigenschaften sowie die technologischen Grundlagen der epitaktischen Fertigung von Heterostrukturen aus den Materialien der 6,1 Ångström-Familie mittels Molekularstrahlepitaxie werden besprochen. Abschließend folgen die Charakterisierungs- und Messmethoden. Ein Überblick über die Literatur zu GaSb/InAs Doppelquantenfilmen in Bezug auf topologische Isolatoren rundet dieses Kapitel ab.
Zu Beginn dieser Arbeit stellten Kurzschlusskanäle eine Herausforderung für die Detektion der topologischen Randkanäle dar. Kapitel 3 behandelt Lösungsansätze hierfür und beschreibt die Verbesserung der Herstellung von GaSb/InAs Doppelquantenfilm-Strukturen mit Blick auf die zukünftige Realisation topologischer Randkanäle. In Abschnitt 3.1 werden numerische Simulationen präsentiert, die sich mit der Inversion der elektronischen Niveaus in Abhängigkeit der GaSb und InAs Schichtdicken dGaSb und dInAs beschäftigen. Ein geeigneter Schichtaufbau für Strukturen mit invertierter Bandordnung liegt im Parameterraum von 8 nm ≾ dInAs ≾ 12 nm und 8 nm ≾ dGaSb ≾ 10 nm. Abschnitt 3.2 beschreibt die epitaktische Herstellung von GaSb/InAs Doppelquantenfilmen mittels Molekularstrahlepitaxie. Die Fertigung eines GaSb Quasisubstrats auf ein GaAs Substrat wird präsentiert und anschließend der Wechsel auf native GaSb Substrate mit einer reduzierten Defektdichte sowie reproduzierbar hoher Probenqualität begründet. Ein Wechseln von binärem AlSb auf gitterangepasstes AlAsSb erlaubt die Verwendung dickerer Barrieren. Versuche, eine hinlängliche Isolation des Backgates durch das Einbringen einer dickeren unteren Barriere zu erreichen, werden in diesem Abschnitt diskutiert. In Abschnitt 3.3 wird die Optimierung der Probenprozessierung gezeigt. Die Kombination zweier angepasster Ätzprozesse – eines trockenchemischen und eines sukzessive folgenden nasschemischen Schrittes – liefert zusammen mit der Entfernung von Oberflächenoxiden reproduzierbar gute Ergebnisse. Ein materialselektiver Ätzprozess mit darauffolgender direkter Kontaktierung des InAs Quantenfilmes liefert gute Kontaktwiderstände, ohne Kurzschlusskanäle zu erzeugen. Abschnitt 3.4 gibt einen kompakten Überblick, über den im weiteren Verlauf der Arbeit verwendeten „best practice“ Prozess.
Mit diesem verbesserten Prozess wurden Proben mit variabler InAs Schichtdicke gefertigt und bei 4,2 K auf ihre Transporteigenschaften hin untersucht. Dies ist in Kapitel 4 präsentiert und diskutiert. Abschnitt 4.1 beschreibt die Serie aus drei Proben mit GaSb/InAs Doppelquantenfilm in AlSb Matrix mit einer variablen InAs Schichtdicke. Die InAs Schichtdicke wurde über numerische Simulationen so gewählt, dass je eine Probe im trivialen Regime, eine im invertierten Regime und eine am Übergang liegt. Gezeigt werden in Kapitel 4.2 Magnetotransportmessungen für konstante Frontgatespannungen sowie Messungen mit konstantem Magnetfeld gegen die Frontgatespannung. Die Messungen bestätigen eine Fertigung quantitativ vergleichbarer Proben, zeigen aber auch, dass keine der Proben im topologischen Regime liegt. Hierfür kommen mehrere Ursachen in Betracht: Eine Überschätzung der Hybridisierung durch die numerische Simulation, zu geringe InAs Schichtdicken in der Fertigung oder ein asymmetrisches Verschieben mit nur einem Gate (Kapitel 4.3). Zur Reduktion der Volumenleitfähigkeit wurden Al-haltigen Schichten am GaSb/InAs Übergang eingebracht. Die erwartete Widerstandssteigerung konnte in ersten Versuchen nicht gezeigt werde.
Die in Kapitel 5 gezeigte optische Manipulation des dominanten Ladungsträgertyps der InAs/GaSb-Doppelquantentöpfe gibt eine zusätzliche Kontrollmöglichkeit im Phasendiagramm. Optische Anregung ermöglicht den Wechsel der Majoritätsladungsträger von Elektronen zu Löchern. Dabei wird ein Regime durchlaufen, in dem beide Ladungsträger koexistieren. Dies weist stark auf eine Elektron-Loch-Hybridisierung mit nichttrivialer topologischer Phase hin. Dabei spielen zwei unterschiedliche physikalische Prozesse eine Rolle, die analog eines Frontgates bzw. eines Backgates wirken. Der Frontgate Effekt beruht auf der negativ persistenten Photoleitfähigkeit, der Backgate Effekt fußt auf der Akkumulation von Elektronen auf der Substratseite. Das hier gezeigte optisch kontrollierte Verschieben der Zustände belegt die Realisation von opto-elektronischem Schalten zwischen unterschiedlichen topologischen Phasen. Dies zeigt die Möglichkeit einer optischen Kontrolle des Phasendiagramms der topologischen Zustände in GaSb/InAs Doppelquantenfilmen. In Abschnitt 5.1 wird die optische Verstimmung von GaSb/InAs Quantenfilmen gezeigt und erklärt. Sie wird in Abhängigkeit von der Temperatur, der Anregungswellenlänge sowie der Anregungsintensität untersucht. Kontrollversuche an Proben mit einem unterschiedlichen Strukturaufbau zeigen, dass das Vorhandensein eines Übergitters auf der Substratseite der Quantenfilmstruktur essentiell für die Entstehung der Backgate-Wirkung ist (Abschnitt 5.2). Abschließend werden in Abschnitt 5.3 die Erkenntnisse zur optischen Kontrolle zusammengefasst und deren Möglichkeiten, wie optisch definierte topologischen Phasen-Grenzflächen, diskutiert.
Bi2Se3 Nanostrukturen
Mit Blick auf die Vorteile eines erhöhten Oberfläche-zu-Volumen Verhältnisses ist die Verwendung von Nanostrukturen für das Anwendungsgebiet der dreidimensionalen topologischen Isolatoren effizient. Mit dem Ziel, diesen Effekt für die Realisation des topologischen Isolators in Bi2Se3 auszunutzen, wurde im Rahmen dieser Arbeit erstmalig das Wachstum von Bi2Se3 Nanodrähten und -flocken mit Molekularstrahlepitaxie realisiert. In Kapitel 6 werden technische und physikalische Grundlagen hierzu erläutert (Abschnitt 6.1). Ausgehend von einer Einführung in dreidimensionale topologische Isolatoren werden die Eigenschaften des topologischen Zustandes in Bi2Se3 gezeigt. Darauf folgen die Kristalleigenschaften von Bi2Se3 sowie die Erklärung des epitaktischen Wachstums von Nanostrukturen mit Molekularstrahlepitaxie. In Abschnitt 6.2 schließt sich die Beschreibung der epitaktischen Herstellung an. Die Kristallstruktur wurde mittels hochauflösender Röntgendiffraktometrie und Transmissionselektronenmikroskopie als Bi2Se3 identifiziert. Rasterelektronenmikroskopie-Aufnahmen zeigen Nanodrähte und Nanoflocken auf mit Gold vorbehandelten bzw. nicht mit Gold vorbehandelten Proben. Der Wachstumsmechanismus für Nanodrähte kann nicht zweifelsfrei definiert werden. Das Fehlen von Goldtröpfchen an der Drahtspitze legt einen wurzelbasierten Wachstumsmechanismus nahe (Abschnitt 6.3).
Perovskite oxides are a very versatile material class with a large variety of outstanding physical properties.
A subgroup of these compounds particularly tempting to investigate are oxides involving high-\(Z\) elements, where spin-orbit coupling is expected to give rise to new intriguing phases and potential application-relevant functionalities. This thesis deals with the preparation and characterization of two representatives of high-\(Z\) oxide sample systems based on KTaO\(_3\) and BaBiO\(_3\).
KTaO\(_3\) is a band insulator with an electronic valence configuration of Ta 5\(d\)\(^0\) . It is shown that by pulsed laser deposition of a disordered LaAlO\(_3\) film on the KTaO\(_3\)(001) surface, through the creation of oxygen vacancies, a Ta 5\(d\)\(^{0+\(\delta\)}\) state is obtained in the upmost crystal layers of the substrate. In consequence a quasi two dimensional electron system (q2DES) with large spin-orbit coupling emerges at the heterointerface. Measurements of the Hall effect establish sheet carrier densities in the range of 0.1-1.2 10\(^{14}\) cm\(^2\), which can be controlled by the applied oxygen background pressure during deposition and the LaAlO\(_3\) film thickness. When compared to the prototypical oxide q2DESs based on SrTiO\(_3\) crystals, the investigated system exhibits exceptionally large carrier mobilities of up to 30 cm\(^2\)/Vs (7000 cm\(^2\)/Vs) at room temperature (below 10 K). Through a depth profiling by photoemission spectra of the Ta 4\(f\) core level it is shown that the majority of the Ta 5\(d\)\(^0\) charge carriers, consisting of mobile and localized electrons, is situated within 4 nm from the interface at low temperatures. Furthermore, the momentum-resolved electronic structure of the q2DES \(buried\) underneath the LaAlO\(_3\) film is probed by means of hard X-ray angle-resolved photoelectron spectroscopy. It is inferred that, due to a strong confinement potential of the electrons, the band structure of the system is altered compared to \(n\)-doped bulk KTO. Despite the constraint of the electron movement along one direction, the Fermi surface exhibits a clear three dimensional momentum dependence, which is related to a depth extension of the conduction channels of at least 1 nm.
The second material, BaBiO\(_3\), is a charge-ordered insulator, which has recently been predicted to emerge as a large-gap topological insulator upon \(n\)-doping. This study reports on the thin film growth of pristine BaBiO\(_3\) on Nb:SrTiO\(_3\)(001) substrates by means of pulsed laser deposition. The mechanism is identified that facilitates the development of epitaxial order in the heterostructure despite the presence of an extraordinary large lattice mismatch of 12 %. At the heterointerface, a structurally modified layer of about 1.7 nm thickness is formed that gradually relieves the in-plane strain and serves as the foundation of a relaxed BBO film. The thereupon formed lattice orders laterally in registry with the substrate with the orientation BaBiO\(_3\)(001)||SrTiO\(_3\)(001) by so-called domain matching, where 8 to 9 BaBiO\(_3\) unit cells align with 9 to 10 unit cells of the substrate. Through the optimization of the deposition conditions in regard to the cation stoichiometry and the structural lattice quality, BaBiO\(_3\) thin films with bulk-like electronic properties are obtained, as is inferred from a comparison of valence band spectra with density functional theory calculations. Finally, a spectroscopic survey of BaBiO\(_3\) samples of various thicknesses resolves that a recently discovered film thickness-controlled phase transition in BaBiO\(_3\) thin films can be traced back to the structural and concurrent stoichiometric modifications occuring in the initially formed lattice on top of the SrTiO\(_3\) substrate rather than being purely driven by the smaller spatial extent of the BBO lattice.
Neben dem Wasserstoffkern 1H können auch andere Kerne für die Magnetresonanztomographie (MRT) genutzt werden. Diese sogenannten X-Kerne können komplementäre Informationen zur klassischen 1H-MRT liefern und so das Anwendungsspektrum der MRT erweitern. Die Herausforderung bei der X-Kern-Bildgebung liegt zum großen Teil in dem intrinsisch niedrigen Signal-zu-Rauschen-Verhältnis (SNR), aber auch in den spezifischen Kerneigenschaften. Um X-Kern-Bildgebung optimal betreiben zu können, müssen daher Sende-/Empfangsspulen, Messsequenzen und -methoden auf den jeweiligen Kern angepasst werden. Im Fokus dieser Dissertation standen die beiden Kerne Natrium (23Na) und Fluor (19F), für die optimierte Hardware und Methoden entwickelt wurden.
23Na spielte in dieser Arbeit vor allem wegen seiner Funktion als Biomarker für Arthrose, einer degenerativen Gelenkserkrankung, eine Rolle. Hierbei ist insbesondere die quantitative Natriumbildgebung von Bedeutung, da sich mit ihr der Knorpelzustand auch im Zeitverlauf charakterisieren lässt. Für die quantitative Messung mittels MRT ist die Kenntnis des B1-Feldes der eingesetzten MR-Spule entscheidend, denn dieses kann die relative Signalintensität stark beeinflussen und so zu Fehlern in der Quantifizierung führen. Daher wurde eine Methode zur Bestimmung des B1-Feldes untersucht und entwickelt. Dies stellte aufgrund des niedrigen SNR und der kurzen sowie biexponentiellen T2-Relaxationszeit von 23Na eine Herausforderung dar. Mit einer retrospektiven Korrekturmethode konnte eine genaue und zugleich schnelle Korrekturmethode gefunden werden.
Für die 1H- und 23Na-Bildgebung am menschlichen Knieknorpel wurden zwei praxistaugliche, doppelresonante Quadratur-Birdcage-Resonatoren entwickelt, gebaut und charakterisiert. Der Vergleich der beiden Spulen bezüglich Sensitivität und Feldhomogenität zeigte, dass der Vier-Ring-Birdcage dem Alternating-Rungs-Birdcage für den vorliegenden Anwendungsfall überlegen ist. Die in vivo erzielte Auflösung und das SNR der 23Na-Bilder waren bei beiden Spulen für die Quantifizierung der Natriumkonzentration im Knieknorpel ausreichend. Hochauflösende anatomische 1H-Bilder konnten ohne Mittelungen aufgenommen werden.
In einer umfangreichen Multiparameter-MR-Tierstudie an Ziegen wurde der Verlauf einer chirurgisch induzierten Arthrose mittels 23Na- und 1H-Bildgebungsmethoden untersucht. Hierbei kamen dGEMRIC, T1ρ-Messung und quantitative Natrium-MRT zum Einsatz. Trotz des im Vergleich zum Menschen dünneren Ziegenknorpels, der niedrigen Feldstärke von 1,5 T und den auftretenden Ödemen konnten erstmals diese MR-Parameter über den Studienverlauf hinweg an den gleichen Versuchstieren und zu den gleichen Zeitpunkten ermittelt werden. Die Ergebnisse wurden verglichen und die ermittelten Korrelationen entsprechen den zugrundeliegenden biochemischen Mechanismen. Die im Rahmen dieser Studie entwickelten Methoden, Bildgebungsprotokolle und Auswertungen lassen sich auf zukünftige Humanstudien übertragen.
Die mit klinischen Bildgebungssequenzen nicht zugängliche kurze Komponente der biexponentiellen T2*-Relaxationszeit von 23Na konnte mittels einer radialen Ultra-Short-Echo-Time-Sequenz bestimmt werden. Hierzu wurde eine Multi-Echo-Sequenz mit einem quasizufälligen Abtastschema kombiniert. Hierdurch gelang es, die kurze und lange T2*-Komponente des patellaren Knorpels in vivo zu bestimmen.
19F wird in der MRT wegen seiner hohen relativen Sensitivität und seines minimalen, körpereigenen Hintergrundsignals als Marker eingesetzt. Zur Detektion der niedrigen in-vivo-Konzentrationen der Markersubstanzen werden hochsensitive Messspulen benötigt.
Für die 19F-Bildgebung an Mäusen wurde eine Birdcage-Volumenspule entwickelt, die sowohl für 19F als auch 1H in Quadratur betrieben werden kann, ohne Kompromisse in Sensitivität oder Feldhomogenität gegenüber einer monoresonanten Spule eingehen zu müssen. Dies gelang durch eine verschiebbare Hochfrequenzabschirmung, mit der die Resonanzfrequenz des Birdcage verändert werden kann. Es konnte weiterhin gezeigt werden, dass die Feldverteilungen bei 1H und 19F im Rahmen der Messgenauigkeit identisch sind und so der 1H-Kanal für die Pulskalibrierung und die Erstellung von B1-Karten für die 19F-Bildgebung genutzt werden kann. Hierdurch kann die Messzeit deutlich reduziert werden.
Ein grundsätzliches Problemfeld stellt die Korrelation unterschiedlicher Bildgebungsmodalitäten dar. In der MRT betrifft das häufig die Korrelation von in-/ex-vivo-MR-Daten und den dazugehörigen Lichtbildaufnahmen an histologischen Schnitten. In dieser Arbeit wurde erstmals erfolgreich eine 1H- und 19F-MR-Messung an einem histologischen Schnitt vorgenommen. Durch die Verwendung einer optimierten 1H/19F-Oberflächenspule konnte die 19F-Signalverteilung in einer dünnen Tumorscheibe in akzeptabler Messzeit aufgenommen werden. Da der gleiche Schnitt sowohl mit Fluoreszenzmikroskopie als auch mit MRT gemessen wurde, konnten Histologie und MR-Ergebnisse exakt korreliert werden.
Zusammenfassend konnten in dieser Arbeit durch Hardware- und Methodenentwicklung zahlreiche neue Aspekte der 19F- und 23Na-MRT beleuchtet werden und so zukünftige Anwendungsfelder erschlossen werden.
This work deals with the development and application of novel quantum Monte Carlo methods to simulate fermion-boson models. Our developments are based on the path-integral formalism, where the bosonic degrees of freedom are integrated out exactly to obtain a retarded fermionic interaction. We give an overview of three methods that can be used to simulate retarded interactions. In particular, we develop a novel quantum Monte Carlo method with global directed-loop updates that solves the autocorrelation problem of previous approaches and scales linearly with system size. We demonstrate its efficiency for the Peierls transition in the Holstein model and discuss extensions to other fermion-boson models as well as spin-boson models. Furthermore, we show how with the help of generating functionals bosonic observables can be recovered directly from the Monte Carlo configurations. This includes estimators for the boson propagator, the fidelity susceptibility, and the specific heat of the Holstein model. The algorithmic developments of this work allow us to study the specific heat of the spinless Holstein model covering its entire parameter range. Its key features are explained from the single-particle spectral functions of electrons and phonons. In the adiabatic limit, the spectral properties are calculated exactly as a function of temperature using a classical Monte Carlo method and compared to results for the Su-Schrieffer-Heeger model.
This thesis describes the growth and characterization of both the all-oxide heterostructure
Fe3O4/ZnO and the spin-orbit coupling driven layered perovskite iridates.
As for Fe3O4/ZnO, the 100% spin-polarized Fe3O4 is a promising spin electrode candidate
for spintronic devices. However, the single crystalline ZnO substrates exhibit different polar surface termination which, together with substrate preparation method, can drastically affect the physical properties of Fe3O4/ZnO heterostructures. In this thesis two different methods of substrate preparation were investigated: a previously used in situ method involving sputtering and annealing treatments and a recent ex situ method containing only the annealing procedure. For the latter, the annealing treatment was performed in dry and humid O2 gas flow for the O- and Zn-terminated substrates, respectively, to produce atomically at surfaces as verified by atomic force microscopy(AFM). With these methods, four different ZnO substrates were fabricated and used further for Fe3O4 film growth. Fe3O4 films of 20 nm thickness were successfully grown by reactive molecular beam epitaxy. AFM measurements reveal a higher film surface roughness for the samples with in situ prepared substrates. Moreover, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) measurements indicate significant Zn substitution within the Fe3O4 film for these samples, whereas the samples with ex situ prepared substrates show stoichiometric Fe3O4 films. X-ray diffraction measurements confirm the observations from XPS, revealing additional peaks due to Zn substitution in Fe3O4 films grown on in situ prepared ZnO substrates. Conductivity, as well as magnetometry, measurements show the presence of Zn-doped ferrites in films grown on in situ prepared substrates. Such unintentionally intercalated Zn-doped ferrites dramatically change the electrical and magnetic properties of the films and, therefore, are not preferred in a high-quality heterostructure.
X-ray reflectivity (XRR) measurements show for the film grown on ex situ prepared Zn-terminated substrate a variation of film density close to the interface which is also confirmed by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Using polarized neutron reflectometry, magnetic depth profiles of the films grown on ex situ prepared substrates clearly indicate Fe3O4 layers with reduced magnetization at the interfaces. This result is consistent with earlier observations made by resonant magnetic X-ray reflectometry (RMXR), but in contrast to the findings from XRR and TEM of this thesis. A detailed TEM study of all four samples shows that the sample with ex situ prepared O-terminated substrate has the sharpest interface, whereas those with ex situ prepared Zn-terminated as well as in situ prepared substrates indicate rougher interfaces. STEM-EELS composition profiles of the samples reveal the Zn substitution in the films with in situ prepared substrates and therefore confirm the presence of Zn-doped ferrites. Moreover, a change of the Fe oxidation state of the first Fe layer at the interface which was observed in previous studies done by RMXR, was not verified for the samples with in situ prepared substrates thus leaving the question of a possible presence of the magnetically dead layer open. Furthermore, density functional theory calculations were performed to determine the termination dependent layer sequences which are ...-Zn-O-(interface)-[Fe(octa)-O-Fe(tetra)-Fe(octa)-Fe(tetra)-O]-[...]-... and ...-O-Zn-(interface)-[O-Fe(octa)-O-Fe(tetra)-Fe(octa)-Fe(tetra)]-[...]-... for the samples with O- and Zn-terminated substrates, respectively. Spin density calculations show that in case of O-termination the topmost substrate layers imitate the spin polarization of film layers close to the interface. Here, the first O layer is affected much stronger than the first Zn layer. Due to the strong decrease of this effect toward deeper substrate layers, the substrate surface is supposed to be sensitive to the contiguous spin polarization of the film. Thus, the topmost O layer of the O-terminated substrate could play the most essential role for effective spin injection into ZnO.
The 5d transition metal oxides Ba2IrO4 (BIO) and Sr2IrO4 (SIO) are associated with the Ruddlesden-Popper iridate series with phase type "214" (RP{214), and due to the strong spin-orbit coupling belong to the class of Mott insulators. Moreover, they show many similarities of the isostructural high Tc-cuprate superconductors, e.g. crystal structure, magnetism and electronic band structure. Therefore, it is of great interest to activate a potential superconducting phase in (RP{214) iridates. However, only a small number of publications on PLD grown (RP{214) iridates in the literature exists. Furthermore, published data of soft X-ray angle resolved photoemission spectroscopy (SX-ARPES) experiments mainly originate from measurements which were performed on single crystals or MBE grown films of SIO and BIO. In this thesis La-doped SIO films (La0:2Sr1:8IrO4, further referred as LSIO) were used to pursue a potential superconducting phase.
A set of characterization methods was used to analyze the quality of the PLD grown BIO, SIO and LSIO films. AFM measurements demonstrate that thick PLD grown(RP{214) iridate films have rougher surfaces, indicating a transition from a 2D layer-bylayer growth (which is demonstrated by RHEED oscillations) to a 3D island-like growth mode. In addition, chemical depth profiling XPS measurements indicate an increase of the O and Ir relative concentrations in the topmost film layers. Constant energy k-space maps and energy distribution curves (EDCs) measured by SX-ARPES show for every grown film only weak energy band dispersions, which are in strong contrast to the results obtained on the MBE grown films and single crystals from the literature. In this thesis,
a subsequent TEM study reveals missing SrO layers within the grown films which occur mainly in the topmost layers, confirming the results and suggestions from XPS and SX-ARPES data: the PLD grown films have defects and, therefore, incoherently scatter photoelectrons. Nevertheless, the LSIO film shows small additional spectral weight between the highsymmetry M points close to the Fermi level which can be attributed to quasiparticle states which, in turn, indicates the formation of a Fermi-arc. However, neither conductivity measurements nor valence band analysis via XPS confirm an activation of a superconducting phase or presence of spectral weight of quasiparticle states at the Fermi level in this LSIO film.
It is possible that these discovered difficulties in growth are responsible for the low number of SX-ARPES publications on PLD grown (RP{214) iridate films. For further investigations of (RP{214) iridate films by SX-ARPES, their PLD growth recipes have to be improved to create high quality single crystalline films without imperfections.
Lattice dynamics and spin-phonon coupling in the multiferroic oxides Eu(1-x)Ho(x)MnO3 and ACrO2
(2019)
The focus of this thesis is the investigation of the lattice dynamics and the coupling of magnetism and phonons in two different multiferroic model systems. The first system, which constitutes the main part in this work is the system of multiferroic manganites RMnO$_{3}$, in particular Eu$_{1-x}$Ho$_{x}$MnO$_{3}$ with $0 \le x \le 0.5$. Its cycloidal spin arrangement leads to the emergence of the ferroelectric polarization via the inverse Dzyaloshinskii-Moriya interaction. This system is special among RMnO$_{3}$ as with increasing Ho content $x$, Eu$_{1-x}$Ho$_{x}$MnO$_{3}$ does not only become multiferroic, but due to the exchange interaction with the magnetic Ho-ion, the spin cycloid (and with it the electric polarization) is also flipped for higher Ho contents. This makes it one of the first compounds, where the cycloidal reorientation happens spontaneously, rather than with the application of external fields.
On the other hand, there is the delafossite ACrO$_{2}$ system. Here, due to symmetry reasons, the spin-spiral pattern can not induce the polarization according to the inverse Dzyaloshinskii-Moriya interaction mechanism. Instead, it is thought that another way of magnetoelectric coupling is involved, which affects the charge distribution in the $d-p$ hybridized orbitals of the bonds.
The lattice vibrations as well as the quasi-particle of the multiferroic phase, the electromagnon, are studied by Raman spectroscopy. Lattice vibrations like the B$_{3g}$(1) mode, which involves vibrations of the Mn-O-Mn bonds modulate the exchange interaction and serve as a powerful tool for the investigation of magnetic correlations effects with high frequency accuracy. Raman spectroscopy acts as a local probe as even local magnetic correlations directly affect the phonon vibration frequency, revealing coupling effects onto the lattice dynamics even in the absence of global magnetic order. By varying the temperature, the coupling is investigated and unveils a renormalization of the phonon frequency as the magnetic order develops. For Eu$_{1-x}$Ho$_{x}$MnO$_{3}$, the analysis of this spin-induced phonon frequency renormalization enables the quantitative determination of the in-plane spin-phonon coupling strengths. This formalism, introduced by Granado et al., is extended here to evaluate the out-of-plane coupling strengths, which is enabled by the identification of a previously elusive feature as a vibrational mode. The complete picture is obtained by studying the lattice- and electromagnon dynamics in the magnetic field.
Further emphasis is put towards the development of the cycloidal spin structure and correlations with temperature. A new model of describing the temperature-dependent behavior of said spin correlations is proposed and can consistently explain ordering phenomena which were until now unaddressed. The results are underscored with Monte Carlo based simulations of the spin dynamics with varying temperature.
Furthermore, a novel effect of a tentative violation of the Raman selection rules in Eu$_{1-x}$Ho$_{x}$MnO$_{3}$ was discovered. While the phonon modes can be separated and identified by their symmetry by choosing appropriate polarization configurations, in a very narrow temperature range, Eu$_{1-x}$Ho$_{x}$MnO$_{3}$ shows an increase of phonon intensities in polarization configurations where they should be forbidden. This is interpreted as a sign of local disorder, caused by 90° domain walls and could be explained within the model framework.
This course of action is followed with the material system of delafossites ACrO$_{2}$. Being a relatively new class of multiferroic materials, the investigations on ACrO$_{2}$ are also of characterizing nature. For this, shell model calculations are performed as a reference to compare the vibrational frequencies obtained by the Raman experiments to. A renormalization of the vibrational frequencies is observed in this system as well and systematically analyzed across the sample series of \textit{A}=Cu, Pd and Ag. Eventually, the effect of applying an external magnetic field is studied. A particularly interesting feature specific for CuCrO$_{2}$ is a satellite peak which appears at lower temperatures. It is presumably related to a deformation of the lattice and therefore going to be discussed in further detail.