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Multiple lines of evidence implicate brain serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine; 5-HT) system dysfunction in the pathophysiology of stressor-related and anxiety disorders. Here we investigate the influence of constitutively deficient 5-HT synthesis on stressor-related anxiety-like behaviors using Tryptophan hydroxylase 2 (Tph2) mutant mice. Functional assessment of c-Fos after associated foot shock, electrophysiological recordings of GABAergic synaptic transmission, differential expression of the Slc6a4 gene in serotonergic neurons were combined with locomotor and anxiety-like measurements in different contextual settings. Our findings indicate that constitutive Tph2 inactivation and consequential lack of 5-HT synthesis in Tph2 null mutant mice (Tph2\(^{-/-}\)) results in increased freezing to associated foot shock and a differential c-Fos activity pattern in the basolateral complex of the amygdala. This is accompanied by altered GABAergic transmission as observed by recordings of inhibitory postsynaptic currents on principal neurons in the basolateral nucleus, which may explain increased fear associated with hyperlocomotion and escape-like responses in aversive inescapable contexts. In contrast, lifelong 5-HT deficiency as observed in Tph2 heterozygous mice (Tph\(^{+/-}\)) is able to be compensated through reduced GABAergic transmission in the basolateral nucleus of the amygdala based on Slc6a4 mRNA upregulation in subdivisions of dorsal raphe neurons. This results in increased activity of the basolateral nucleus of the amygdala due to associated foot shock. In conclusion, our results reflect characteristic syndromal dimensions of panic disorder and agoraphobia. Thus, constitutive lack of 5-HT synthesis influence the risk for anxiety- and stressor-related disorders including panic disorder and comorbid agoraphobia through the absence of GABAergic-dependent compensatory mechanisms in the basolateral nucleus of the amygdala.
The current diagnostic criteria of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders are being challenged by the heterogeneity and the symptom overlap of psychiatric disorders. Therefore, a framework toward a more etiology-based classification has been initiated by the US National Institute of Mental Health, the research domain criteria project. The basic neurobiology of human psychiatric disorders is often studied in rodent models. However, the differences in outcome measurements hamper the translation of knowledge. Here, we aimed to present a translational panic model by using the same stimulus and by quantitatively comparing the same outcome measurements in rodents, healthy human subjects and panic disorder patients within one large project. We measured the behavioral–emotional and bodily response to CO\(_{2}\) exposure in all three samples, allowing for a reliable cross-species comparison. We show that CO\(_{2}\) exposure causes a robust fear response in terms of behavior in mice and panic symptom ratings in healthy volunteers and panic disorder patients. To improve comparability, we next assessed the respiratory and cardiovascular response to CO\(_{2}\), demonstrating corresponding respiratory and cardiovascular effects across both species. This project bridges the gap between basic and human research to improve the translation of knowledge between these disciplines. This will allow significant progress in unraveling the etiological basis of panic disorder and will be highly beneficial for refining the diagnostic categories as well as treatment strategies.
Background
Currently ketogenic diets (KDs) are hyped as an anti-tumor intervention aimed at exploiting the metabolic abnormalities of cancer cells. However, while data in humans is sparse, translation of murine tumor models to the clinic is further hampered by small sample sizes, heterogeneous settings and mixed results concerning tumor growth retardation. The aim was therefore to synthesize the evidence for a growth inhibiting effect of KDs when used as a monotherapy in mice.
Methods
We conducted a Bayesian random effects meta-analysis on all studies assessing the survival (defined as the time to reach a pre-defined endpoint such as tumor volume) of mice on an unrestricted KD compared to a high carbohydrate standard diet (SD). For 12 studies meeting the inclusion criteria either a mean survival time ratio (MR) or hazard ratio (HR) between the KD and SD groups could be obtained. The posterior estimates for the MR and HR averaged over four priors on the between-study heterogeneity τ\(^{2}\) were MR = 0.85 (95% highest posterior density interval (HPDI) = [0.73, 0.97]) and HR = 0.55 (95% HPDI = [0.26, 0.87]), indicating a significant overall benefit of the KD in terms of prolonged mean survival times and reduced hazard rate. All studies that used a brain tumor model also chose a late starting point for the KD (at least one day after tumor initiation) which accounted for 26% of the heterogeneity. In this subgroup the KD was less effective (MR = 0.89, 95% HPDI = [0.76, 1.04]).
Conclusions
There was an overall tumor growth delaying effect of unrestricted KDs in mice. Future experiments should aim at differentiating the effects of KD timing versus tumor location, since external evidence is currently consistent with an influence of both of these factors.
In this study, the ability of a multiwalled carbon nanotube functionalized with fluorescein isothiocyanate (MWCNT-FITC) was assessed as a prospective central nervous system-targeting drug delivery system to permeate the blood-brain barrier. The results indicated that the MWCNT-FITC conjugate is able to penetrate microvascular cerebral endothelial monolayers; its concentrations in the Transwell® system were fully equilibrated after 48 hours. Cell viability test, together with phase-contrast and fluorescence microscopies, did not detect any signs of MWCNT-FITC toxicity on the cerebral endothelial cells. These microscopic techniques also revealed presumably the intracellular localization of fluorescent MWCNT-FITCs apart from their massive nonfluorescent accumulation on the cellular surface due to nanotube lipophilic properties. In addition, the 1,000 ps molecular dynamics simulation in vacuo discovered the phenomenon of carbon nanotube aggregation driven by van der Waals forces via MWCN-TFITC rapid dissociation as an intermediate phase.
Peptides derived from human and bovine lactoferricin were designed, synthesized, purified, and characterized using RP-HPLC and MALDI-TOF-MS. Specific changes in the sequences were designed as (i) the incorporation of unnatural amino acids in the sequence, the (ii) reduction or (iii) elongation of the peptide chain length, and (iv) synthesis of molecules with different number of branches containing the same sequence. For each peptide, the antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli ATCC 25922 and Enterococcus faecalis ATCC 29212 was evaluated. Our results showed that Peptides I.2 (RWQWRWQWR) and I.4 ((RRWQWR)\(_{4}\)K\(_{2}\)Ahx\(_{2}\)C\(_{2}\)) exhibit bigger or similar activity against E. coli (MIC 4-33 μM) and E. faecalis (MIC 10-33 μM) when they were compared with lactoferricin protein (LF) and some of its derivate peptides as II.1 (FKCRRWQWRMKKLGA) and IV.1 (FKCRRWQWRMKKLGAPSITCVRRAE). It should be pointed out that Peptides I.2 and I.4, containing the RWQWR motif, are short and easy to synthesize; our results demonstrate that it is possible to design and obtain synthetic peptides that exhibit enhanced antibacterial activity using a methodology that is fast and low-cost and that allows obtaining products with a high degree of purity and high yield.
Controversy surrounds neutrophil function in cancer because neutrophils were shown to provide both pro-and antitumor functions. We identified a heterogeneous subset of low-density neutrophils (LDNs) that appear transiently in self-resolving inflammation but accumulate continuously with cancer progression. LDNs display impaired neutrophil function and immunosuppressive properties, characteristics that are in stark contrast to those of mature, high-density neutrophils (HDNs). LDNs consist of both immature myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) and mature cells that are derived from HDNs in a TGF-beta-dependent mechanism. Our findings identify three distinct populations of circulating neutrophils and challenge the concept that mature neutrophils have limited plasticity. Furthermore, our findings provide a mechanistic explanation to mitigate the controversy surrounding neutrophil function in cancer.
Gehirntumore stellen die zweithäufigste Tumorart im Kindesalter dar. Trotz zahlreicher medizinischer Fortschritte verstirbt auch heute noch ca. 1/3 der Betroffenen und die Überlebenden leiden häufig unter geistigen und körperlichen Langzeitfolgen. Zwei Entitäten, die auch heute noch zu den großen Herausforderungen der pädiatrischen Onkologie zählen, sind das Glioblastom und das Medulloblastom. Um beide Tumorarten weiter erforschen und neue Therapiekonzepte entwickeln zu können, wurden im Zuge dieser Arbeit zwei orthotope Mausmodelle etabliert: ein syngenes Glioblastom- und ein xenogenes Medulloblastom-Modell:
GL261-FLuc Glioblastom-Modell:
Das Glioblastom ist ein seltener Tumor im Kindesalter. Die extrem schlechte Prognose macht neue Behandlungsstrategien jedoch dringend erforderlich. Immuntherapien könnten hier ein rationaler Ansatz sein. Durch orthotope Inokulation lentiviral transduzierter GL261-FLuc Zellen wurde im Rahmen dieser Arbeit das syngene GL261 Modell etabliert und hinsichtlich seiner biomorphologischen und immunologischen Eigenschaften evaluiert: Ähnlich wie humane Glioblastome zeigen GL261-FLuc Zellen in vivo ein aggressives Wachstum, welches von einer schnellen Proliferation und deutlichen Invasionsneigung geprägt ist. Histologisch bestehen GL261-FLuc Tumore aus astrozytär differenzierten Zellen, die neben typischen Nekrosen auch eine starke, funktionell pathologische Vaskularisierung zeigen. Interessanterweise offenbarte das in vivo BLI nach orthotoper Inokulation eine Phase der „Tumoradaptation“ (Tag 6-14), die immunologischer Natur zu sein scheint. Die Tatsache, dass das Tumorwachstum wie beim Menschen in einer prinzipiell immunkompetenten Umgebung stattfindet und dass GL261-FLuc Zellen eine konstitutionelle und durch IFN γ stimulierbare MHC Klasse I Expression aufweisen, qualifiziert das Modell für immuntherapeutische Untersuchungen. Insgesamt handelt es sich nicht nur um ein gut voraussag- und reproduzierbares Modell, das die immunologischen und bio-morphologischen Kennzeichen des humanen Vorbildes suffizient rekapituliert, sondern es liefert auch dank der Möglichkeit, das Zellwachstum mittels BLI zu verfolgen, interessante Einblicke in das in vivo Verhalten der Zellen.
MB3W1 Medulloblastom-Modell:
Das Medulloblastom ist der häufigste maligne Gehirntumor des Kindesalters und kann, wie neue Genexpressionsstudien zeigen, in verschiedene molekulare Subgruppen unterteilt werden. Für Gruppe 3 Medulloblastome, die mit Abstand die schlechteste klinische Prognose besitzen, gibt es aktuell nur limitierte Daten, unter anderem auch deshalb, weil kaum geeignete Mausmodelle existieren. Der außergewöhnliche Fall eines zweijährigen Jungen, der an einem äußerst aggressiven anaplastischen Medulloblastom verstorben war, führte zur Etablierung des zweiten Hirntumormodells. Mit Zellen dieses Tumors (MB3W1 Zellen), die nach extrakranieller Metastasierung aus malignen Pleuraergüssen isoliert werden konnten, wurde ein orthotopes Xenograftmodell etabliert. Erstaunlicherweise ließen die Zellen sowohl Tumorstammzell- als auch Gruppe 3-Charakteristika erkennen: In vitro wachsen MB3W1 Zellen wie für Stammzellen typisch in Form von Neurosphären und zeigen neben der Fähigkeit zur exponentiellen Langzeitproliferation auch eine hohe ALDH Aktivität. Die Expression typischer Oberflächenmarker wie CD15 und CD133 ist ebenfalls suggestiv für Tumorstammzelleigenschaften. Die hohe Tumorigenität von MB3W1 Zellen in immuninkompetenten Mäusen (bereits 500 Zellen führten zu 100 % Tumorraten) ist neben der Tatsache, dass die induzierten Tumore exakt die histopathologischen Eigenschaften des Primärtumors rekapitulierten und eine multilineäre Differenzierung zeigten, als weiteres Stammzell-kennzeichen zu werten. Ergänzend zum genetischen Profil (MYC Amplifikation, Gruppe 3 spezifisches Genexpressionsmuster, Tetraploidie, 17q Zugewinne), das MB3W1 Zellen klar als Gruppe 3 Medulloblastom identifiziert, spiegeln MB3W1 Zellen auch das aggressive und disseminierende Verhalten, welches Gruppe 3 Tumore auszeichnet, wider. Die Xenotransplantate zeigten nicht nur ein rapides invasives Wachstum in vivo, sondern es konnte interessanterweise auch am Versuchsende regelhaft eine Metastasierung der Zellen in den zerebrospinalen Liquor beobachtet werden. Das im Zuge dieser Arbeit etablierte Xenograftmodell komplementiert die beiden einzigen derzeit veröffentlichten syngenen Gruppe 3 Modelle, da es im Gegensatz zu diesen ohne zusätzliche genetische Manipulation auskommt. Die einzige Modifikation der Zellen (die lentivirale Transduktion mit eGFP und FLuc) diente dem besseren in vivo „Monitoring“, war optional und veränderte auch das biologische Verhalten der Zellen nicht. Insgesamt ist es ein einfaches und gut reproduzierbares Tumormodell, das die gleichzeitige Erforschung von Tumorstammzell- und Gruppe 3-Eigenschaften erlaubt. Vor allem vor dem Hintergrund des außergewöhnlichen klinischen Verlaufs des Primärtumors ist es ein extrem wertvolles Werkzeug, das in Zukunft hoffentlich dazu beitragen wird, neue gezielte Therapiestrategien für die Behandlung solch aggressiver Tumore entwickeln zu können.
Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, induced by a Western diet (WD), evokes central and peripheral inflammation that is accompanied by altered emotionality. These changes can be associated with abnormalities in social behaviour, hippocampus-dependent cognitive functions, and metabolism. Female C57BL/6J mice were fed with a regular chow or with a WD containing 0.2% of cholesterol and 21% of saturated fat for three weeks. WD-treated mice exhibited increased social avoidance, crawl-over and digging behaviours, decreased body-body contacts, and hyperlocomotion. The WD-fed group also displayed deficits in hippocampal-dependent performance such as contextual memory in a fear conditioning and pellet displacement paradigms. A reduction in glucose tolerance and elevated levels of serum cholesterol and leptin were also associated with the WD. The peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-alpha (PPARGC1a) mRNA, a marker of mitochondrial activity, was decreased in the prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, hypothalamus, and dorsal raphe, suggesting suppressed brain mitochondrial functions, but not in the liver. This is the first report to show that a WD can profoundly suppress social interactions and induce dominant-like behaviours in naïve adult mice. The spectrum of behaviours that were found to be induced are reminiscent of symptoms associated with autism, and, if paralleled in humans, suggest that a WD might exacerbate autism spectrum disorder.
Background: The angiotensin II receptor subtype 2 (AT2 receptor) is ubiquitously and highly expressed in early postnatal life. However, its role in postnatal cardiac development remained unclear.
Methodology/Principal Findings: Hearts from 1, 7, 14 and 56 days old wild-type (WT) and AT2 receptor-deficient (KO) mice were extracted for histomorphometrical analysis as well as analysis of cardiac signaling and gene expression. Furthermore, heart and body weights of examined animals were recorded and echocardiographic analysis of cardiac function as well as telemetric blood pressure measurements were performed. Moreover, gene expression, sarcomere shortening and calcium transients were examined in ventricular cardiomyocytes isolated from both genotypes. KO mice exhibited an accelerated body weight gain and a reduced heart to body weight ratio as compared to WT mice in the postnatal period. However, in adult KO mice the heart to body weight ratio was significantly increased most likely due to elevated systemic blood pressure. At postnatal day 7 ventricular capillarization index and the density of \(\alpha\)-smooth muscle cell actin-positive blood vessels were higher in KO mice as compared to WT mice but normalized during adolescence. Echocardiographic assessment of cardiac systolic function at postnatal day 7 revealed decreased contractility of KO hearts in response to beta-adrenergic stimulation. Moreover, cardiomyocytes from KO mice showed a decreased sarcomere shortening and an increased peak Ca\(^{2+}\) transient in response to isoprenaline when stimulated concomitantly with angiotensin II.
Conclusion: The AT2 receptor affects postnatal cardiac growth possibly via reducing body weight gain and systemic blood pressure. Moreover, it moderately attenuates postnatal vascularization of the heart and modulates the beta adrenergic response of the neonatal heart. These AT2 receptor-mediated effects may be implicated in the physiological maturation process of the heart.
The Unrecognized Effects of Phosphodiesterase 4 on Epithelial Cells in Pulmonary Inflammation
(2015)
Acute pulmonary inflammation is characterized by migration of polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMNs) into the different compartments of the lung, passing an endothelial and epithelial barrier. Recent studies showed evidence that phosphodiesterase (PDE) 4-inhibitors stabilized endothelial cells. PDE4B and PDE4D subtypes play a pivotal role in inflammation, whereas blocking PDE4D is suspected to cause gastrointestinal side effects. We thought to investigate the particular role of the PDE4-inhibitors roflumilast and rolipram on lung epithelium. Acute pulmonary inflammation was induced by inhalation of LPS. PDE4-inhibitors were administered i.p. or nebulized after inflammation. The impact of PDE4-inhibitors on PMN migration was evaluated in vivo and in vitro. Microvascular permeability, cytokine levels, and PDE4B and PDE4D expression were analyzed. In vivo, both PDE4-inhibitors decreased transendothelial and transepithelial migration even when administered after inflammation, whereas roflumilast showed a superior effect compared to rolipram on the epithelium. Both inhibitors decreased TNF\(\alpha\), IL6, and CXCL2/3. CXCL1, the strong PMN chemoattractant secreted by the epithelium, was significantly more reduced by roflumilast. In vitro assays with human epithelium also emphasized the pivotal role of roflumilast on the epithelium. Additionally, LPS-induced stress fibers, an essential requirement for a direct migration of PMNs into the alveolar space, were predominantly reduced by roflumilast. Expression of PDE4B and PDE4D were both increased in the lungs by LPS, PDE4-inhibitors decreased mainly PDE4B. The topical administration of PDE4-inhibitors was also effective in curbing down PMN migration, further highlighting the clinical potential of these compounds. In pulmonary epithelial cells, both subtypes were found coexistent around the nucleus and the cytoplasm. In these epithelial cells, LPS increased PDE4B and, to a lesser extend, PDE4D, whereas the effect of the inhibitors was prominent on the PDE4B subtype. In conclusion, we determined the pivotal role of the PDE4-inhibitor roflumilast on lung epithelium and emphasized its main effect on PDE4B in hyperinflammation.