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Autoimmune diseases, unwanted overshooting immune responses against self antigens, are due to an imbalance in immunity and tolerance. Although negatively impacting cancer prognosis, myeloid derived suppressor cells (MDSC), with their potent suppressive capabilities, might be applicable in a more beneficial light when applied in to autoimmunity. As previous shown MDSC have protective roles in Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis (EAE) (Zhu et al., 2007), the established inducible mouse model for the autoimmune disease multiple sclerosis (MS). This decrease in disease severity indicates in vitro generated immature myeloid cells (IMC) from bone marrow (BM) as precursors of MDSC are promising candidates for cellular therapy. Important to any cellular therapy by adoptive transfer, the major questions regarding IMC efficacy was addressed within the thesis. This thesis attempts to elucidate how IMC operate in EAE. This thesis defines the factors within the autoimmune microenvironment that lead to the activation of MDSC, where IMC home once delivered in vivo, and the protective mechanisms BMIMC employ. To emulate BM cells when they first enter circulation through the blood, IMC were injected intravenously (i.v.). IMC are protective with no regard to the various routes delivered (i.v., i.p.). They protect to a lesser extent when pre-activated before injection. IMC suppress by causing a delay and/or by decreasing the severity of the disease via a mechanism yet determined. To understand the migration pattern of IMC after i.v. injection, in vivo kinetics experiments employing bioluminescence imaging were performed. This techinique allows for whole in vivo mouse imaging daily, allowing the tracking of cell migration over days within a single mouse. During steady-state, BMIMC circulate and appear to accumulate in the spleen by day 4 after injection, whereas they alternatively home to inflammatory sites (immunization site), draining lymph nodes, and the spleen within mice with low grade EAE. Visualization of CMDiI-labelled BMIMC by fluorescence microscopy could locate IMC injected cells outside the white pulp, as they were colocalizing in the regions stained with CD169 or outside, but not within the follicles of spleens on day 4. Consistant with these findings, the attempt to analyze the phenotype of these cells by flow cytometry was problematic as these cells seem to adhere strongly to collagen also indicating the cells are located in the collagenous area of the marginal zone and the red pulp.To determine factors influencing MDSC activation, we utilized different stimuli through a high throughput method detecting release of nitric oxide (NO). Extracts from yeast, fungi, and bacteria were observed to activate MDSC to produce nitric oxide. Surprisingly, material mimicking viral DNA (CpG) and RNA (poly I:C), and several self glycolipids, could not activate the MDSC to produce NO. Upon attempts to understand synergistic effects between microbial pathogens and host cytokines, IFNg was determined to boost the signal of pathogen stimuli, whereas IL17, another cytokine which causes pathology during EAE, and IFNb, a drug used in therapy to treat MS, did not cause any additional effects. Activation of MDSC was determined by the microbial pathogens components LPS, curdlan, and zymosan, to induce upregulation of B7H1 on the cell surface. MDSC did not increase any co-stimulatory markers, such as CD40, CD80, CD86, CD70, or the co-inhibitory marker, PDL2. On day 1 after EAE induction, endogenous MDSC populations when stimulated showed an increase in B7H1 expression and a downregulation of CD80. After further analysis, these cells were concluded to be mostly granulocytic cells (Ly6G+). As the B7H1 ligand PD1 is upregulated in chronic diseases and correlates to an exhausted phenotype, the PD1 : B7H1 interaction was a good candidate for the mechanism our cells may employ for their suppressive capacity. To investigate this interaction, fixed BM-IMC deficient in B7H1 were incubated with restimulated memory T cells. IMC deficient in B7H1 resulted in a significant loss of T cell suppression, as compared to the wildtype control BMIMC. To assess this interaction in vivo, we injected wildtype (WT) and B7H1-/- IMC into mice followed by induction of EAE to assess whether B7H1 mediated this suppression. The lack of B7H1 did not alter their suppressive capacity under these conditions, contrary to other findings which have described this interaction to be important in their suppressive capacity when administered post EAE induction (Ioannou et al., 2012). Interestingly, EAE mice pre-treated with IMC had similar amounts of cytokine production in the CNS after restimulation. Spleens from IMC injected mice had increased amounts of Arg-1 suggesting suppression is via oxidation or recruitment by soluble mediators may lead to this protection. We speculate this may inhibit T cell reactivation in the CNS.
Cancer is one of the leading causes of death all over the world. Malnutrition and toxic contaminations of food with substances such as mycotoxins have been thought to account for a high percentage of cancers. However, human diet can deliver both mutagens and components that decrease the cancer risk. Genomic damage could be reduced by food components through different mechanisms such as scavenging of reactive oxygen species. In the first part of this study we tried to investigate the effects of patulin and resveratrol on DNA stability in V79 cells. Patulin is a mycotoxin, which is frequently found in spoiled apples and other fruits. The WHO has established a safety level of 50 µg/L, which is indeed not observed by all manufacturers. The acute toxicity of patulin in high concentrations is well known, however its potential carcinogenicity is still a matter of debate. Therefore we wanted to investigate further steps in the mechanism of patulin-induced genotoxicity. Patulin caused the formation of micronuclei and nucleoplasmic bridges in a dose-dependent manner. Further analysis revealed that patulin induced both kinetochore-negative and positive micronuclei. Time course of incubation indicate a new mechanism for patulin-induced nucleoplasmic bridge formation. We hypothized a mechanism via cross-linking of DNA, which was confirmed by a modified version of comet assay. Incubations of cells with patulin led to an increased number of multinucleated cells and multipolar mitoses. Cell cytometry revealed a G2 arrest by patulin, which might explain the amplification of centrosomes and patulin-induced aneuploidy. Patulin cause a dose-dependent DNA damage in comet assay which was influenced by the cellular GSH content. However, an induction of oxidative stress was just seen with higher concentrations of patulin. Levels of cellular glutathione were increased after 24 h incubation indicating an adaptive response to patulin-induced stress. There is growing interest in polyphenols such as resveratrol which have shown many positive effects on human health. The beneficial properties are partially attributed to their ability to scavenge reactive oxygen species. Co-incubation of V79 cells with patulin and 10 µM of the antioxidant resveratrol led to a slight reduction of micronucleus frequency compared to cells which were just treated with patulin. However, in higher concentrations resveratrol themselves caused the formation of micronuclei in V79 cells. Kinetochore analysis indicated only clastogenic properties for resveratrol but no disturbance of mitosis. The antioxidant properties of resveratrol were shown in ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assay. However, in cellular system resveratrol in higher concentrations revealed also prooxidative properties, as shown in 2,7-dichlordihydrofluorescein (DCF) assay. The increased level of glutathione after resveratrol treatment might reflect an adaptive response to resveratrol-induced oxidative stress. For the second part of this thesis we investigated the effects of an anthocyanin-rich grape extract on hypertensive Ren-2 rats. Ren-2 rats are an accepted genetically modified rat model for the investigation of hypertension and increased oxidative stress. We divided 23 female Ren-2 rats into three groups. One group was fed with an anthocyanin-rich Dacapo grape extract, one group was treated with the angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor ramipril and the third group was kept without medication during the experiment. After one week untreated group showed a clear increase in systolic and diastolic blood pressure compared to the ramipril treated rats. This was in part attenuated in the animals fed with anthocyanin-rich Dacapo grape extract. Effects on blood pressure were also reflected in an increased thirst of untreated and extract fed animals. Comet assay with cells of kidney and liver revealed a slight protective impact of Dacapo extract on DNA damage compared to the other groups. Similar results were obtained after evaluation of ɣ-H2AX-staining of kidney and heart sections. However, in the small intestine oppositional effects were seen, indicating an increased number of double strand breaks probably due to the high local concentration of polyphenols after oral ingestion. Antioxidative properties of the extract were shown in FRAP assay. However, this effect was not reflected in an increased antioxidative capacity in serum or a protective impact in the dihydroethidium (DHE) assay. The extract showed protective effects on DNA damage in comet assay and ɣ-H2AX-staining, but was not able to reduce hypertension back to the control level of ramipril treated animals. High local concentrations could also result in an increased damage of the affected tissue. Therefore, the administration of such concentrated compounds should be handled with care.
The sexual phase of Plasmodium falciparum begins with the differentiation of intraerythrocytic sexual stages, termed gametocytes, in the human host. Mature gametocytes circulate in the peripheral blood and are taken up by the mosquito during the blood meal. These stages are essential for the spread of the malaria disease and form gametes in the mosquito midgut within minutes. A highly conserved family of six secreted proteins has been identified in Plasmodium falciparum. They comprise multiple adhesive domains and are termed PfCCp1 through PfCCp5, and PfFNPA. It was revealed in this work that PfCCp multi-domain adhesion proteins form protein complexes in gametocytes and on the surface of newly emerged macrogametes by adhesion domain-mediated binding. Co-Immunoprecipitation assays with activated gametocyte lysates show interactions between PfCCp proteins and indicate surface association via Pfs230 and Pfs25. Pfs230 is connected with the plasma membrane of the parasite by its interaction partner Pfs48/45. This protein is linked to the plasma membrane by a GPI anchor and presumably retains the multi-protein complex on the surface of newly emerged macrogametes in the mosquito midgut. A WD40 domain containing protein was identified to be part of this protein complex. It might serve as platform for the assembly of the multi protein complex or mediate the interplay among proteins, as suggested from known functions of the WD40 domain repeats. During egress from the host erythrocyte, the emerging gametes become vulnerable to factors of the human complement, which is taken up with the blood meal. In this thesis it was found that the complement system is active for about one hour post feeding. Macrogametes defend against complement-mediated lysis by co-opting the human complement regulators Factor H and FHL-1 from the blood-meal. These serum proteins bind via its SCR domains 5-7 to the surface of macrogametes. Once bound, they trigger complement inactivation of the alternative pathway, which prevents induction of complement lysis on the surface of the malaria parasite. Antibodies against Factor H are able to impair the sexual development in vitro and are able to block transmission to the mosquito. Interaction studies on endogenous proteins and immobilized recombinant proteins revealed the PfGAP50 protein as binding partner of Factor H and FHL-1. This protein was hitherto described as a glideosome-associated protein in invasive parasite stages, but has not yet been characterized in gametes. First localization studies indicate a relocation of PfGAP50 from the inner membrane complex to the surface of macrogametes. Malaria still persists as one of the deadliest infectious diseases worldwide. Investigations on the essential transmissive stages, gametocytes and gametes of Plasmodium falciparum, stood in the background of research for a long time. This work deciphered details on protein interactions on the surface of the malaria parasite and provides first information about coactions between the parasite and the human complement in the mosquito midgut.
ATP dependent chromatin remodeling complexes are multifactorial complexes that utilize the energy of ATP to rearrange the chromatin structure. The changes in chromatin structure lead to either increased or decreased DNA accessibility. SWI/SNF is one of such complex. The SWI/SNF complex is involved in both transcription activation and transcription repression. The ATPase subunit of SWI/SNF is called SWI2/SNF2 in yeast and Brahma, Brm, in Drosophila melanogaster. In mammals there are two paralogs of the ATPase subunit, Brm and Brg1. Recent studies have shown that the human Brm is involved in the regulation of alternative splicing. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of Brm in pre-mRNA processing. The model systems used were Chironomus tentans, well suited for in situ studies and D. melanogaster, known for its full genome information. Immunofluorescent staining of the polytene chromosome indicated that Brm protein of C. tentans, ctBrm, is associated with several gene loci including the Balbiani ring (BR) puffs. Mapping the distribution of ctBrm along the BR genes by both immuno-electron microscopy and chromatin immunoprecipitation showed that ctBrm is widely distributed along the BR genes. The results also show that a fraction of ctBrm is associated with the nascent BR pre-mRNP. Biochemical fractionation experiments confirmed the association of Brm with the RNP fractions, not only in C. tentans but also in D. melanogaster and in HeLa cells. Microarray hybridization experiments performed on S2 cells depleted of either dBrm or other SWI/SNF subunits show that Brm affects alternative splicing and 3´ end formation. These results indicated that BRM affects pre-mRNA processing as a component of SWI/SNF complexes. 1
In cultured motoneurons of a mouse model for the motoneuron disease spinal muscular atrophy (SMA), reduced levels of the protein SMN (survival of motoneurons) cause defects in axonal growth. This correlates with reduced β-actin mRNA and protein in growth cones, indicating that anterograde transport and local translation of β-actin mRNA are crucial for motoneuron function. However, direct evidence that indeed local translation is a physiological phenomenon in growth cones of motoneurons was missing. Here, a lentiviral GFP-based reporter construct was established to monitor local protein synthesis of β-actin mRNA. Time-lapse imaging of fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) in living motoneurons revealed that β-actin is locally translated in the growth cones of embryonic motoneurons. Interestingly, local translation of the β-actin reporter construct was differentially regulated by different laminin isoforms, indicating that laminins provide extracellular cues for the regulation of local translation in growth cones. Notably, local translation of β-actin mRNA was deregulated when motoneurons of a mouse model for type I SMA (Smn-/-; SMN2) were analyzed. In situ hybridization revealed reduced levels of β-actin mRNA in the axons of Smn-/-; SMN2 motoneurons. The distribution of the β-actin mRNA was not modified by different laminin isoforms as revealed by in situ hybridization against the mRNA of the eGFP encoding element of the β-actin reporter. In case of the mRNA of α-actin and γ-actin isoforms, the endogenous mRNA did not localize to the axons and the localization pattern was not affected by the SMN levels expressed in the cell. Taken together our findings suggest that regulation of local translation of β-actin in growth cones of motoneurons critically depends on laminin signaling and the amount of SMN protein. Embryonic stem cell (ESC)-derived motoneurons are an excellent in vitro system to sort out biochemical and cellular pathways which are defective in neurodegenerative diseases like SMA. Here, a protocol for the differentiation and antibody-mediated enrichment of ESC-derived motoneurons is presented, which was optimized during the course of this study. Notably, this study contributes the production and purification of highly active recombinant sonic hedgehog (Shh), which was needed for the efficient differentiation of mouse ESCs to motoneurons. ESC-derived motoneurons will now offer high amounts of cellular material to allow the biochemical identification of disease-relevant molecular components involved in regulated local protein synthesis in axons and growth cones of motoneurons.
Streptococcus pneumoniae (Pneumococcus) is one of the leading causes of childhood meningitis,pneumonia and sepsis. Despite the availability of childhood vaccination programs and antimicrobial agents, childhood pneumococcal meningitis is still a devastating illness with mortality rates among the highest of any cause of bacterial meningitis. Especially in low-income countries, where medical care is less accessible, mortality rates up to 50 % have been reported. In surviving patients, neurological sequelae, including hearing loss, focal neurological deficits and cognitive impairment, is reported in 30 to 50 %. Growing resistance of pneumococci towards conventional antibiotics emphasize the need for effective therapies and development of effective vaccines against Streptococcus pneumoniae. One major virulence factor of Streptococcus pneumoniae is the protein toxin Pneumolysin (PLY). PLY belongs to a family of structurally related toxins, the so-called cholesterol-dependent cytolysins (CDCs). Pneumolysin is produced by almost all clinical isolates of the bacterium. It is expressed during the late log phase of bacterial growth and gets released mainly through spontaneous autolysis of the bacterial cell. After binding to cholesterol in the host cell membranes, oligomerization of up to 50 toxin monomers and rearrangement of the protein structure, PLY forms large pores, leading to cell lysis in higher toxin concentrations. At sub-lytic concentrations, however, PLY mediates several other effects, such as activation of the classic complement pathway and the induction of apoptosis. First experiments with pneumococcal strains, deficient in pneumolysin, showed a reduced virulence of the organism, which emphasizes the contribution of this toxin to the course of bacterial meningitis and the urgent need for the understanding of the multiple mechanisms leading to invasive pneumococcal disease. The aim of this thesis was to shed light on the contribution of pneumolysin to the course of the disease as well as to the mental illness patients are suffering from after recovery from pneumococcal meningitis. Therefore, we firstly investigated the effects of sub-lytic pneumolysin concentrations onto primary mouse neurons, transfected with a GFP construct and imaged with the help of laser scanning confocal microscopy. We discovered two major morphological changes in the dendrites of primary mouse neurons: The formation of focal swellings along the dendrites (so-called varicosities) and the reduction of dendritic spines. To study these effects in a more complex system, closer to the in vivo situation, we established a reproducible method for acute brain slice culturing. With the help of this culturing method, we were able to discover the same morphological changes in dendrites upon challenge with sub-lytic concentrations of pneumolysin. We were able to reverse the seen alterations in dendritic structure with the help of two antagonists of the NMDA receptor, connecting the toxin´s mode of action to a non-physiological stimulation of this subtype of glutamate receptors. The loss of dendritic spines (representing the postsynapse) in our brain slice model could be verified with the help of brain slices from adult mice, suffering from pneumococcal meningitis. By immunohistochemical staining with an antibody against synapsin I, serving as a presynaptic marker, we were able to identify a reduction of synapsin I in the cortex of mice, infected with a pneumococcal strain which is capable of producing pneumolysin. The reduction of synapsin I was higher in these brain slices compared to mice infected with a pneumococcal strain which is not capable of producing pneumolysin, illustrating a clear role for the toxin in the reduction of dendritic spines. The fact that the seen effects weren´t abolished under calcium free conditions clarifies that not only the influx of calcium through the pneumolysin-pore is responsible for the alterations. These findings were further supported by calcium imaging experiments, where an inhibitor of the NMDA receptor was capable of delaying the time point, when the maximum of calcium influx upon PLY challenge was reached. Additionally, we were able to observe the dendritic beadings with the help of immunohistochemistry with an antibody against MAP2, a neuron-specific cytoskeletal protein. These observations also connect pneumolysin´s mode of action to excitotoxicity, as several studies mention the aggregation of MAP2 in dendritic beadings in response to excitotoxic stimuli. All in all, this is the first study connecting pneumolysin to excitotoxic events, which might be a novel chance to tie in other options of treatment for patients suffering from pneumococcal meningitis.
The probiotic Escherichia coli strain Nissle 1917 (EcN) is one of the few probiotics licensed as a medication in several countries. Best documented is its effectiveness in keeping patients suffering from ulcerative colitis (UC) in remission. This might be due to its ability to induce the production of human beta defensin 2 (HBD2) in a flagellin-dependent way in intestinal epithelial cells. In contrast to ulcerative colitis, for Crohn´s disease (CD) convincing evidence is lacking that EcN might be clinically effective, most likely due to the genetically based inability of sufficient defensin production in CD patients. As a first step in the development of an alternative approach for the treatment of CD patients, EcN strains were constructed which were able to produce human alpha-defensin 5 (HD5) or beta-defensin 2 (HBD2). For that purpose codon-optimized defensin genes encoding either the proform with the signal sequence or the mature form of human alpha defensin 5 (HD5) or the gene encoding HBD2 with or without the signal sequence were cloned in an expression vector plasmid under the control of the T7 promoter. Synthesis of the encoded defensins was shown by Western blots after induction of expression and lysis of the recombinant EcN strains. Recombinant mature HBD2 with an N-terminal His-tag could be purified by Ni-column chromatography and showed antimicrobial activity against E. coli, Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium and Listeria monocytogenes. In a second approach, that part of the HBD2-gene which encodes mature HBD2 was fused with yebF gene. The resulting fusion protein YebFMHBD2 was secreted from the encoding EcN mutant strain after induction of expression. Presence of YebFMHBD2 in the medium was not the result of leakage from the bacterial cells, as demonstrated in the spent culture supernatant by Western blots specific for ß-galactosidase and maltose-binding protein. The dialyzed and concentrated culture supernatant inhibited the growth of E. coli, Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium and Listeria monocytogenes in radial diffusion assays as well as in liquid coculture. This demonstrates EcN to be a suitable probiotic E. coli strain for the production of certain defensins.
Malaria and HIV are among the most important global health problems of our time and together are responsible for approximately 3 million deaths annually. These two diseases overlap in many regions of the world including sub-Saharan Africa, Southeast Asia and South America, leading to a higher risk of co-infection. In this study, we generated and characterized hybrid molecules to target P. falciparum and HIV simultaneously for a potential HIV/malaria combination therapy. Hybrid molecules were synthesized by covalent fusion between azidothymidine (AZT) and dihydroartemisinin (DHA), tetraoxane or chloroquine (CQ); and a small library was generated and tested for antiviral and antimalarial activity. Our data suggest that dihyate is the most potent molecule in vitro, with antiplasmodial activity comparable to that of DHA (IC50 = 26 nM, SI > 3000), a moderate activity against HIV (IC50 = 2.9 µM; SI > 35) and safe to HeLa cells at concentrations used in the assay (CC50 > 100 µM). Pharmacokinetic studies further revealed that dihyate is metabolically unstable and is cleaved following an O-dealkylation once in contact with cytochrome P450 enzymes. The later further explains the uneffectiveness of dihyate against the CQ-sensitive P. berghei N strain in mice when administered by oral route at 20 mg/kg. Here, we report on a first approach to develop antimalarial/anti-HIV hybrid molecules and future optimization efforts will aim at producing second generation hybrid molecules to improve activity against HIV as well as compound bioavailability. With the emergence of resistant parasites against all the counterpart drugs of artemisinin derivatives used in artemisinin based combination therapies (ACTs), the introduction of antibiotics in the treatment of malaria has renewed interest on the identification of antibiotics with potent antimalarial properties. In this study we also investigated the antiplasmodial potential of thiostrepton and derivatives, synthesized using combinations of tail truncation, oxidation, and addition of lipophilic thiols to the terminal dehydroamino acid. We showed that derivatives SS231 and SS234 exhibit a better antiplasmodial activity (IC50 = 1 µM SI > 59 and SI > 77 respectively) than thiostrepton (IC50 = 8.95 µM, SI = 1.7). The antiplasmodial activity of these derivatives was observed at concentrations which are not hemolytic and non-toxic to human cell lines. Thiostrepton and derivatives appeared to exhibit transmission blocking properties when administered at their IC50 or IC90 concentrations and our data also showed that they attenuate proteasome activity of Plasmodium, which resulted in an accumulation of ubiquitinated proteins after incubation with their IC80 concentrations. Our results indicate that the parasite’s proteasome could be an attractive target for therapeutic intervention. In this regard, thiostrepton derivatives are promising candidates by dually acting on two independent targets, the proteasome and the apicoplast, with the capacity to eliminate both intraerythrocytic asexual and transmission stages of the parasite. To further support our findings, we evaluated the activity of a new class of antimalarial and proteasome inhibitors namely peptidyl sulfonyl fluorides on gametocyte maturation and analogues AJ34 and AJ38 were able to completely suppress gametocytogenesis at IC50 concentrations (0.23 µM and 0.17 µM respectively) suggesting a strong transmission blocking potential. The proteasome, a major proteolytic complex, responsible for the degradation and re-cycling of non-functional proteins has been studied only indirectly in P. falciparum. In addition, an apparent proteasome-like protein with similarity to bacterial ClpQ/hslV threonine-peptidases was predicted in the parasite. Antibodies were generated against the proteasome subunits alpha type 5 (α5-SU), beta type 5 (β5-SU) and pfhslV in mice and we showed that the proteasome is expressed in both sexual and asexual blood stages of P. falciparum, where they localize in the nucleus and in the cytoplasm. However, expression of PfhslV was only observed in trophozoites and shizonts. The trafficking of the studied proteasome subunits was further investigated by generating parasites expressing GFP tagged proteins. The expression of α5-SU-GFP in transgenic parasite appeared to localize abundantly in the cytoplasm of all blood stages, and no additional information was obtained from this parasite line. In conclusion, our data highlight two new tools towards combination therapy. Hybrid molecules represent promising tools for the cure of co-infected individuals, while very potent antibiotics with a wide scope of activities could be useful in ACTs by eliminating resistant parasites and limiting transmission of both, resistances and disease.
SUMMARY Mast cell activation in allergic and inflammatory disease causes increased vascular permeability and edema. This thesis identifies a paracrine mechanism, by which heparin released from intracellular granules, is involved in mast cell-evoked alteration of endothelial barrier function in vivo. Negatively charged heparin initiated factor XII-driven contact activation. Activated factor XII triggered the formation of the inflammatory mediator bradykinin in plasma. Congenital deficiency and pharmacological targeting of factor XII and kinin B2 receptor provided protection from mast cell-heparin-induced leukocyte-endothelial adhesion and hypotension in rats and mice. Intravital laser scanning microscopy and tracer measurements showed that heparin increased leakage with fluid extravasation in skin microvessels in mice. Deficiency in factor XII or kinin B2 receptor conferred resistance to heparin-induced skin edema and largely protected mice from endothelial barrier dysfunction, caused by allergen-induced mast cell activation and anaphylactic reactions. In contrast, heparin and mast cell activation caused excessive edema formation in mice, deficient in the major inhibitor of factor XII, C1 esterase inhibitor. Hereditary angioedema patients, lacking C1 esterase inhibitor, suffered from allergeninduced edema. The data indicate that mast cell-heparin-initiated bradykinin formation plays a fundamental role in defective barrier function of pathological mast cell-mediated inflammation, hypotension and edema formation.
Der Fluoreszenz-Resonanz-Energie-Transfer ist ein Phänomen, welches erstmals 1948 von Theodor Förster beschrieben wurde. Mit der Entwicklung von Fluoreszenzproteinen konnten in Kombination mit Mikroskopietechniken Einblicke in zellbiologische Vorgänge gewonnen werden, die durch biochemische oder physiologische Experimente nicht möglich sind. Dabei spielt die hohe zeitliche und räumliche Auflösung eine wichtige Rolle. Auf dem Forschungsgebiet der GPCR, welche die größte Gruppe von Membranproteinen bei den Säugetieren darstellen, wurden insbesondere Erkenntnisse über Konformationsänderungen der Rezeptoren, die Kinetik der Rezeptoraktivierung und die Interaktion mit intrazellulären Signalproteinen gewonnen. Der µ-Opioidrezeptor gehört zur Familie der GPCR und stellt aufgrund seiner analgetischen Wirkungen eine wichtige pharmakologische Zielstruktur dar. Das Ziel dieser Arbeit war sowohl den Rezeptor als auch seine Signalwege mittels FRET-Mikroskopie zu untersuchen. Zunächst sollte ein intramolekularer FRET-Sensor des µ-Opioidrezeptors entwickelt werden, dazu wurden basierend auf den Kenntnissen über die Tertiärstruktur und dem Aufbau bereits bekannter GPCR-Sensoren verschiedene Rezeptorkonstrukte kloniert. Bei den Konstrukten wurden entweder zwei Fluoreszenzproteine oder ein Fluoreszenzprotein und ein Fluorophor-bindendes Tetracysteinmotiv kombiniert. Auch die Positionen der eingefügten Sequenzen wurden in den intrazellulären Domänen variiert, da der Rezeptor auf die Modifikationen mit beeinträchtigter Membranlokalisation reagierte. Durch die Optimierung wurden Rezeptoren konstruiert, die an der Zellmembran lokalisiert waren. Jedoch zeigte keines der Rezeptorkonstrukte Funktionalität im Hinblick auf die Rezeptoraktivierung. Im zweiten Teil wurden die pharmakologischen Effekte der Metabolite von Morphin am humanen µ-Opioidrezeptor systematisch analysiert. Dazu wurde die Fähigkeit der Metabolite, Gi-Proteine zu aktivieren und β-Arrestin2 zu rekrutieren, mittels FRET-basierter Messungen an lebenden Zellen untersucht. Außerdem wurde die Affinität der Metabolite zum humanen µ Opioidrezeptor anhand der Verdrängung eines radioaktiven Liganden analysiert. Meine Experimente identifizierten eine Gruppe mit stark agonistischen und eine mit schwach agonistischen Eigenschaften. Die starken Partialagonisten aktivieren den Rezeptor bereits bei nanomolaren Konzentrationen, während die schwachen Metabolite den Rezeptor erst bei Konzentrationen im mikromolaren Bereich aktivieren. Die Metabolite Normorphin, Morphin-6-Glucuronid und 6-Acetylmorphin zeigen geringere Potenz als Morphin bei der Gi-Aktivierung aber überraschenderweise höhere Potenz und Effizienz für die β-Arrestin-Rekrutierung. Dies deutet auf eine bevorzugte Aktivierung von β-Arrestin2 hin. Die aus diesen Studien gewonnenen Ergebnisse liefern Hinweise darauf, welche Metabolite bei der Signalverarbeitung am µ Opioidrezeptor in vivo beteiligt sind.