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Stem cells are defined by their capacity to self-renew and their potential to differentiate into multiple cell lineages. Pluripotent embryonic stem (ES) cells can renew indefinitely while keeping the potential to differentiate into any of the three germ layers (ectoderm, endoderm or mesoderm). For decades, ES cells are in the focus of research because of these unique features. When ES cells differentiate they form spheroid aggregates termed “embryoid bodies” (EBs). These EBs mimic post- implantation embryonic development and therefore facilitate the understanding of developmented mechanisms.
During ES cell differentiation, de-repression or repression of genes accompanies the changes in chromatin structure. In ES cells, several mechanisms are involved in the regulation of the chromatin architecture, including post-translational modifications of histones. Post-translational histone methylation marks became one of the best- investigated epigenetic modifications, and they are essential for maintaining pluripotency. Until the first histone demethylase KDM1A was discovered in 2004 histone modifications were considered to be irreversible. Since then, a great number of histone demethylases have been identified. Their activity is linked to gene regulation as well as to stem cell self-renewal and differentiation.
KDM6A and KDM6B are H3K27me3/2-specific histone demethylases, which are known to play a central role in the regulation of posterior development by regulating HOX gene expression. So far less is known about the molecular function of KDM6A or KDM6B in undifferentiated and differentiating ES cells. In order to completely abrogate KDM6A and KDM6B demethylase activity in undifferentiated and differentiating ES cells, a specific inhibitor (GSK-J4) was employed. Treatment with GSK-J4 had no effect on the viability or proliferation on ES cells. However, in the presence of GSK-J4 ES cell differentiation was completely abrogated with cells arrested in G1-phase and an increased rate of apoptosis. Global transcriptome analyses in early-differentiating ES cells revealed that only a limited set of genes were differentially regulated in response to GSK-J4 treatment with more genes up- regulated than down-regulated. Many of the up-regulated genes are linked to DNA damage response (DDR). In agreement with this, DNA damage was found in EBs incubated with GSK-J4. A co-localization of H3K27me3 or KDM6B with γH2AX foci, marking DNA breaks, could be excluded. However, differentiating Eed knockout (KO) ES cells, which are devoid of the H3K27me3 mark, showed an attenuated GSK-J4- induced DDR. Finally, hematopoietic differentiation in the presence of GSK-J4 resulted in a reduced colony-forming potential. This leads to the conclusion that differentiation in the presence of GSK-J4 is also restricted to hematopoietic differentiation.
In conclusion, my results show that the enzymatic activity of KDM6A and KDM6B is not essential for maintaining the pluripotent state of ES cells. In contrast, the enzymatic activity of both proteins is indispensable for ES cell and hematopoietic differentiation. Additionally KDM6A and KDM6B enzymatic inhibition in differentiating ES cells leads to increased DNA damage with an activated DDR. Therefore, KDM6A and KDM6B are associated with DNA damage and in DDR in differentiating ES cells.
The synaptonemal complex (SC) is a highly conserved structure in sexually reproducing organism. It has a tripartite, ladder-like organization and mediates the stable pairing, called synapsis, of the homologous chromosomes during prophase of meiosis I. Failure in homolog synapsis result in aneuploidy and/or apoptosis of the developing germ cells.
Since 1956, the SC is subject of intense research and its presence was described in various species from yeast to human. Its structure was maintained during millions of years of evolution consist-ing of two parallel lateral elements (LEs), joined by numerous transverse filaments (TFs) which run perpendicular to the LEs and an electron dense central element (CE) in the middle of the SC. Individual protein components, however, were characterized only in few available model organ-isms, as for example Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Arabidopsis thaliana, Drosophila melanogaster, Ceanorhabditis elegans and Mus musculus. Rather unexpectedly, these characterizations failed to detect an evolutionary homology between the protein components of the different SCs. This fact challenged the general idea of a single origin of the SC in the evolution of meiosis and sexual reproduction.
This thesis now addressed itself to the task to unravel the discrepancy between the high conser-vation of the SC structure and its diverse and apparently non-homologous protein composition, focusing on the animal kingdom. It is the first study dealing with the evolution of the SC in Meta-zoa and demonstrates the monophyly of the mammalian SC components in metazoan species. The thesis demonstrates that at least four out of seven murine SC proteins emerged in Eumeta-zoa at the latest and have been likewise part of an ancient SC as it can be found in the present-day cnidarian species Hydra. This SC displays the common organization and already possesses the minimal protein kit corresponding to the three different structural domains: LEs, TFs and the CE. Additionally, the individual phylogenies of the murine SC proteins revealed the dynamic evolu-tionary history of the ancient SC. Further components were added during the diversification of Bilateria and vertebrates while ancestral proteins likely duplicated in the vertebrate lineage and diversified or got lost in the branch leading to ecdysozoan species. It is hypothesized that the apparently non-homologous SC proteins in D. melanogaster and C. elegans actually do derive from the ancient SC proteins but diversified beyond recognition during the fast evolution of Ar-thropoda and Nematoda.
The study proposes Hydra as an alternative invertebrate model system for meiosis and SC re-search to the standard organisms D. melanogaster and C. elegans. Recent results about the cni-darian SC as well as the possible application of standard methods is discussed and summarized in the concluding section.