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Institute
- Theodor-Boveri-Institut für Biowissenschaften (20) (remove)
We examined the regulation of NFATc1 in different lymphomas and observed an inversed correlation between the methylation status and expression of NFATc1. Our data demonstrate that aberrant DNA methylation associated with chromatin remodeling within nfatc1 locus is a major mechanism for the repression of NFATc1 expression, suggesting that the DNA methylation-mediated transcriptional silencing of NFATc1 may be a critical event in the tumorogenesis of ALCLs and cHLs. Furthermore, the DNA methylation of human nfatc1 promoter region could be used as a novel biomarker of tumor progression. Our results indicate a close link between the loss of immunoreceptor signaling and NFATc1 expression in human lymphomas. For both ALCLs and cHLs, defects in immunoreceptor signaling have been described which result in a loss of receptor-mediated gene expression programs (Schwering et al., 2003; Bonzheim et al., 2004; Marafioti et al., 2004). In T cells, one indicator gene of these programs appears to be the nfatc1 gene whose expression is controlled by TCR signals (Chuvpilo et al., 2002a). In contrast, in T cells NFATc1 expression is unaffected by TCR signals, and NFATc2 was found to be expressed at normal levels in ALCLs and cHLs (L.K., unpubl. data). Moreover, the activity of NF-kappaB factors which can bind to certain NFAT binding sites and share a distantly-related DNA binding domain with NFATs is strongly elevated in cHL cells (Bargou et al., 1997; Hinz et al., 2001; Hinz et al., 2002) suggesting that NFATs and NF-kappaBs exert very different effects on generation and maintenance of Hodgkin’s lymhomas. However, it should be mentioned that in Burkitt’s and further B cell lymphomas in which NFATc1 proteins are strongly expressed and controlled by receptor signals (Kondo et al., 2003), they could exert a promoting function in tumor development. The genes of p53 family members p63 and p73 are prominent examples for mammalian genes whose products can act both as oncoproteins and tumor suppressor genes (Hibi et al., 2000; Stiewe and Putzer, 2002), and it is likely that more genes exist which encode both tumor suppressors and oncoproteins. It remains to be shown whether the nfatc1 gene is one of them.
This study investigates the abundance and geographic distribution of the hawkmoth species (Lepidoptera: Sphingidae) of Southeast-Asia and analyses the resulting patterns of biodiversity, biogeography and macroecology. Data on the distribution of species were retrieved from published and unpublished faunal lists and museum collections (in close cooperation with the Natural History Museum, London). Over 34,500 records of the global distribution of the 380 species that occur in Southeast-Asia (including New Guinea and the Solomon Islands) were used for a GIS-supported estimate of distributional ranges, which can be accessed at http://www.sphingidae-sea.biozentrum.uni-wuerzburg.de, an Internet site that also provides pictures of the species and checklists for 114 islands of the Malesian region. The abundance of species in local assemblages was assessed from nightly collections at artificial light sources. Using a compilation of own samples as well as published and unpublished data from other sources, local abundance data on 93 sites were used for analysis, covering 159 species or 17,676 specimens.
The bacteriophage Lambda is a virus which infects bacteria carrying LamB protein in their outer membrane. GpJ, a protein of the tail of the phage, is involved in the binding to LamB. The study of the interaction between GpJ expressed as fusion protein and LamB was performed in order to investigate the interaction between the bacteriophage Lambda and LamB. The fusion proteins are called MBP-gpJ and His-gpJ. MBP-gpJ is a chimeric protein representing Maltose Binding Protein connected to the Cterminal part of the GpJ protein (residue 684 until 1132), graciously given by Pr. Charbit (Paris, France). MBP-gpJ, expressed in E.coli and purified, bound to the exoplasmic side of LamB and LamB variants in planar lipid bilayer experiments and allowed a complete and reversible blockage of LamB channels. In order to obtain data about the binding of the GpJ fragment alone to LamB, an other fusion protein without MBP was created, called His-gpJ. His-gpJ is the C-terminal part of GpJ (684-1132) in fusion with a 6×Histidine-tag, produced as insoluble form in E.coli. After renaturation, a soluble protein can be obtained. Without MBP, the GpJ fragment still bound to LamB in planar lipid bilayer experiments, but did not block significantly its channels, as previously observed after addition of MBP-gpJ. The interaction between His-gpJ and LamB or LamB mutants was also demonstrated on SDSPAGE and immunodetection by the presence of high molecular mass bands. Furthermore, the use of variants of lamB allowed to demonstrate that the C-terminal fragment of GpJ does not bind to the same area on the surface of LamB than GpJ involved in the tail of the Lambda phage.
Somites are repeated epithelial segments that are generated in a rhythmic manner from the presomitic mesoderm (PSM) in the embryonic tailbud. Later, they differentiate into skeletal muscle, cartilage and dermis. Somitogenesis is regulated by a complex interplay of different pathways. Notch/Delta signaling is one of the pathways well characterized in zebrafish through mutants affected in its different components. Previous work in mouse, chicken and zebrafish has shown that also additional components are required during somitogenesis, most importantly through an FGF and Retinoic acid (RA) gradient, as well as Wnt signaling. However, no zebrafish mutants with defects in these pathways showing specific somite malformations are described. This was explained by functional redundancies among related genes that have resulted from a whole genome duplication which occurred in a teleost fish ancestor 350 million years ago. As distinct duplicates exist in different teleost species, a large scale mutagenesis screen in the medaka (Oryzias latipes) has been performed successfully in Kyoto, Japan. I analyzed nine of the isolated medaka mutants that show variable aspects of somitic phenotypes. This includes a complete or partial loss of somite boundaries (e.g. bms and sne), somites with irregular sizes and shapes (e.g. krz and fsl) or partially fused and enlarged somites (e.g. dpk). Although some of these medaka mutants share characteristics with previously described zebrafish somite mutants, most of the mutants represent unique phenotypes, not obtained in the zebrafish screens. In-situ hybridization analyses with marker genes implicated in the segmentation clock (e.g. her7), establishment of anterior-posterior (A-P) polarity (e.g. mesp) and differentiation of somites (e.g. myf5, lfng) revealed that the medaka mutants can be separated into two classes. Class I shows defects in tailbud formation and PSM prepatterning, and lateron somite boundary formation was impaired in these mutants. A unique member of this class with a novel phenotype is the doppelkorn (dpk) mutant that has single fused or enlarged somites. This phenotype has not been reported till now in zebrafish somite mutants. In-situ analyses on dpk showed that stabilization of the cyclically expressed somitogenesis clock genes must be affected in this mutant. This is accompanied by a disrupted regulation of A-P polarity genes like mesp. This suggests that dpk is a mutant deficient in the wave front, which is necessary for the down-regulation of oscillating genes in the anterior PSM. Furthermore, as the initiation of oscillation of all three cyclic her genes was unaffected in dpk embryos, I could exclude that this mutant in affected in the Notch/Delta pathway. Another mutant that belongs to this class is the samidare (sam) mutant. Morphologically, sam mutants are similar to zebrafish after eight (aei). In both cases, the first 7-9 somites are formed properly, but after this somite formation ceases. Different to the situation in aei, sam mutant embryos presented an additional defect in the mid-hindbrain boundary (MHB) region. Similar MHB defects were described in the zebrafish fgf8 mutant acerebellar (ace). In ace zebrafish mutant, somites were only slightly defective, although FGF signaling has been shown to be important for somite formation in chicken, mouse and zebrafish. This was explained by functional redundancy between fgf8 and fgf24 ligands in the tailbud of zebrafish. Thus, it is interesting to suggest that the sam mutant, based on the parallel defects in somites and MHB, is a potential member of the FGF signaling pathway muatnts. It was shown that FGF plays a crucial role during MHB formation in medaka. In addition, I showed that fgf8 acts non-redundantly during tailbud formation and somitogenesis in medaka. Furthermore, I showed that FGF signaling regulates somite size also in medaka and that fgfr1 is the only FGF receptor expressed in the tailbud and somites. In class II medaka somite mutants, PSM prepatterning appears normal, whereas A-P polarity, boundary formation, epithelialization or the later differentiation of somites appears to be affected. Such mutants have not been isolated so far in zebrafish, mice or chicken. Therefore, medaka class II somite mutants seem to be a novel group of mutants that opens new perspectives to analyze A-P polarity regulation, determination and boundary formation in the presence of a normally functioning clock in the PSM. Identifying the encoding genes for all analyzed medaka somite mutants will contribute to the understanding of the molecular interactions of different signaling pathways involved during somitogenesis, and is expected to result in the identification of new components.
Rhodococcus equi is a Gram-positive intracellular pathogen which can cause severe bronchopneumonia in foals. In recent years, the role of this bacterium as human pathogen has been noted, as R.equi infections in humans have increase in frequency. This increase is associated with the rise in immunosupressed individuals, specially AIDS patients, where infection leads to symptoms and pathology similar to those seen in foals with a high mortality rate. Due to its capability to survive and multiply in murine and equine macrophages, R.equi has been classified as a facultative intracellular bacterium. R.equi is found frequently in macrophages in alveolar infiltrate from infected animals. The pathogenicity of R.equi depends on its ability to exist and multiply inside macrophages and has been associated with the presence of virulence plasmids. It has been observed that, inside foal alveolar macrophages, R.equi-containing vacuoles (RCVs) do not mature into phagolysosomes. However, most of the intracellular events during R.equi infection have not been investigated in detail. The aim of this study was to elucidate the intracellular compartmentation of R.equi and the mechanism by which the bacteria avoid destruction in host macrophages. The importance of the virulence-associated plasmids of R.equi for the establishment of RCVs was also evaluated. Furthermore, the intracellular fate of viable and non-viable R.equi was compared in order to study whether viability of R.equi influeciantes the establishment of RCVs. In this study, the RCV was characterized by using a variety of endocytic markers to follow the path of the bacteria trhough murine macropages. Transmission electron microscopy-base analysis showed that R.equi was found equally frequently in phagosomes with loosely or thightly apposed membranes, and RCV often contains numerous membranous vesicles. Laser scanning microscopy of infected macrophages showed that the majority of phagosomes containing R.equi acquired transiently the early endosomal markers Rab5, Ptlns3P, and EEA-1, suggesting initially undisturbed phagosome maturation. Although the RCV acquired some late endosomal markers, such as Rab7, LAMP-1, and Lamp-2, they did not acquired vATPase, did not interact with pre-labeled lysosomes, and failed to acidify. These data clearly suggest that the RCV is a compartment which has left vacuoles that resemble multivesicular body compartments (MVB), which are transport intermediates between early and late endosomes and display internal vesicles very similar to the ones observed within RCVs. Analyisis of several R.equi strains containing either VapA- or VapB-expressing plasmids or neither demonstrated that the possession of the virulence-associated plasmids does not affect phagosome trafficking over a two hour period of infection. The finding that non-viable R.equi was still able to inhibit phagosome maturation (although not to the same extent as viable R.equi did) suggests that heat-insensitive factors, such as cell periphery lipids, may play a major role in inhibition of phagosome maturation, although heat-sensitive factors may also be involved.
Olfaction plays an important role in a variety of behaviors throughout the life of the European honeybee. Caste specific, environmentally induced and aging/experiencedependent differences in olfactory behavior represent a promising model to investigate mechanisms and consequences of phenotypic neuronal plasticity within the olfactory pathway of bees. This study focuses on the two different female phenotypes within the honeybee society, queens and workers. In this study, for the first time, structural plasticity in the honeybee brain was investigated at the synaptic level. Queens develop from fertilized eggs that are genetically not different from those that develop into workers. Adult queens are larger than workers, live much longer, and display different behaviors. Developmental trajectory is mainly determined by nutritional factors during the larval period. Within the subsequent post-capping period, brood incubation is precisely controlled, and pupae are incubated close to 35°C via thermoregulatory activity of adult workers. Behavioral studies suggest that lower rearing temperatures cause deficits in olfactory learning in adult bees. To unravel possible neuronal correlates for thermoregulatory and caste dependent influences on olfactory behavior, I examined structural plasticity of developing as well as mature olfactory synaptic neuropils. Brood cells were reared in incubators and pupal as well as adult brains were dissected for immunofluorescent staining. To label synaptic neuropils, I used an antibody to synapsin and fluophore-conjugated phalloidin which binds to filamentous (F-) actin. During development, neuronal F-actin is expressed in growing neurons, and in the mature nervous system, F-actin is most abundant in presynaptic terminals and dendritic spines. In the adult brains, this double labeling technique enables the quantification of distinct synaptic complexes microglomeruli [MG]) within olfactory and visual input regions of the mushroom bodies (MBs) prominent higher sensory integration centers. Analyses during larval-adult metamorphosis revealed that the ontogenetic plasticity in the female castes is reflected in the development of the brain. Distinct differences among the timing of the formation of primary and secondary olfactory neuropils were also revealed. These differences at different levels of the olfactory pathway in queens and workers correlate with differences in tasks performed by both female castes. In addition to caste specific differences, thermoregulation of sealed brood cells has important consequences on the synaptic organization within the MB calyces of adult workers and queens. Even small differences in rearing temperatures affected the number of MG in the olfactory calyx lip regions. In queens, the highest number of MG in the olfactory lip developed at 1°C below the temperature where the maximum of MG is found in workers (33.5 vs. 34.5°C). Apart from this developmental neuronal plasticity, this study exhibits a striking age-related plasticity of MG throughout the extended life span of queens. Interestingly, MG numbers in the olfactory lip increased with age, but decreased within the adjacent visual collar of the MB calyx. To conclude, developmental and adult plasticity of the synaptic circuitry in the sensory input regions of the MB calyx may underlie caste- and age-specific adaptations and long-term plasticity in behavior.
BMPs influence a variety of cellular processes. They have been shown to regulate proliferation, differentiation, migration and apoptosis and thus play central roles during developmental processes and tissue homeostasis. Ligand mediated signal transduction is transmitted via BMP type I and BMP type II receptors, both members of the serine/threonine kinase superfamily. The BMP receptor mediated signal transduction is not explored in detail. Therefore our aim was to address different aspects of BMP mediated signal transduction with main focus on BRII and its regulation. Due to the existence of two alternative splice variants, a long and a short form, the function of the two variants and the impact of the C-terminal extension are of general interest. Moreover, mutations in the BMPR2 gene were identified to be responsible for PPH, a autosomal dominant lung disease. In this thesis, BRII phosphorylation and signalling mediated by different receptor oligomers were investigated and multiple BRII associated proteins were identified. We could show that the oligomerization pattern of BMP receptors exhibits a higher degree of flexibility compared to other receptors of that superfamily. In the present work the BMP2 mediated signal transduction should be examined, depending on the receptor oligomerization pattern. Using kinase-deficient mutants, it could be demonstrated, that signalling via preformed BMP receptor complexes is mediated by the well characterized Smad1/5/8 pathway, whereas signalling initiated by BMP2 induced recruitment of the receptors activates the p38 pathway and leads to Alkaline Phosphatase production. To further study signalling events triggered directly from the BRII a proteomics-based screen for BRII associated proteins was performed. 53 associated proteins were found, the majority being signal transducing molecules, but in addition metabolic proteins, transcriptional regulators and others were identified. These proteins enable to gain a deeper insight in BMP mediated signalling. One of the interactors, the receptor tyrosine kinase c-kit, was characterized in more detail. It could be demonstrated, that BRII and c-kit form a complex in vitro and in vivo, and the interaction is enhanced upon BMP2 stimulation. 2D phosphopeptid mapping showed that BRII is phosphorylated at S757 upon activation of c-kit by SCF. Moreover, c-kit and its ligand SCF are modulating BMP2 pathways, by enhancing Smad1/5 phosphorylation, Smad-transcriptional activity, Alkaline Phosphatase production and expression of Cbfa1. All these pathways hint towards modulation of the osteoblast development via c-kit. Thus, we were able to develop a novel paradigm for the BMP2 meditated signalling. One of the initial triggers for BRII is the auto-phosphorylation of BRII. Here we analyze ligand-independent as well as ligand-dependent phosphorylation of BRII. Some phosphorylation sites in BRII were identified. The general phosphorylation occurs mostly on serines. S815, S818 and Y825 are identified targets of phosphorylation whose function is still unclear. However phosphorylation of S336 is demonstrated to be essential for BRII activation. The elucidation of BMP receptor phosphorylation and oligomerization as well as the impact of a number of BRII associated proteins (such as c-kit), demonstrated in this thesis that BMP signalling has to be regulated precisely on multiple levels. This can be useful for the development of selective signalling inhibitors for basic research and therapeutic approaches of PPH and other diseases.
Corynebacterium glutamicum is together with C. callunae and C. efficiens a member of the diverse group of mycolic-acid containing actinomycetes, the mycolata. These bacteria are potent producer of glutamate, lysine and other amino acids on industrial scale. The cell walls of most actinomycetes contain besides an arabinogalactan-peptidoglycan complex large amounts of mycolic acids. This three-layer envelope is called MAP (mycolyl-arabinogalactan-peptidoglycan) complex and it represents a second permeability barrier beside the cytoplasmic membrane similar to the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria. In analogy to the situation in the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria, channels are present in the mycolic acid layer of the mycobacterial cell wall for the passage of hydrophilic solutes. Molecular studies have provided far-reaching findings on the amino acid flux and its balance in C. glutamicum in general, but the L-glutamate export still remains unknown. The properties of the outer layers, typical of mycolata, seem to be of major importance in this process, and diffusion seems to play a key role for this part of the cell wall. The major aim of this thesis was to identify and study novel channel-forming proteins of the amino acid producers C. glutamicum, C. callunae and C. efficiens. Cell wall extracts of the organisms were investigated and a novel pore-forming protein, named PorH, that is homologue in all three organisms, was detected and characterized. PorHC.glut was isolated from C. glutamicum cells cultivated in minimal medium. The protein was identified in lipid bilayer experiments and purified to homogeneity by fast-protein liquid chromatography across a HiTrap-Q column. The purified protein forms cation-selective channels with a diameter of about 2.2 nm and an average single-channel conductance of about 2.5 nS in 1 M KCl in the lipid bilayer assay. Organic solvent extracts were used to study the permeability properties of the cell wall of C. callunae and C.efficiens. The cell extracts contained channel-forming activity, the corresponding proteins were purified to homogeneity by fast-protein liquid chromatography across a HiTrap-Q column and named PorHC.call and PorHC.eff. Channels formed by PorHC.call are cation-selective with a diameter of about 2.2 nm and an average single-channel conductance of 3 nS, whereas PorHC.eff forms slightly anion selective channels with an average single-channel conductance of 2.3 nS in 1 M KCl in the lipid bilayer assay. The PorH proteins were partially sequenced and the corresponding genes, which were designated as porH, were identified in the published genome sequence of C. glutamicum and C. efficiens. The chromosome of C. callunae is not sequenced, but PorHC.call shows a high homology to PorHC.eff and PorHC.glut. The proteins have no N-terminal extension, only the inducer methionine, which suggests that secretion of the proteins could be very similar to that of PorAC.glut of C. glutamicum. PorHC.glut is coded in the bacterial chromosome by a gene that is localized in the vincinity of the porAC.glut gene, within a putative operon formed by 13 genes that are encoded by the minus strand. Both porins are cotranscribed and coexist in the cell wall, which was demonstrated in RT-PCR and immunological detection experiments. The arrangement of porHC.glut and porAC.glut on the chromosome is similar to that of porBC.glut and porCC.glut and it was found that PorAC.glut, PorHC.glut, PorBC.glut and PorCC.glut coexist in the cell wall of C. glutamicum. The molecular mass of about 6 kDa of the PorH channel forming proteins is rather small and suggests that the cell wall channels are formed by oligomers. A possibly hexameric form was demonstrated for PorHC.glut in Western blot analysis with anti- PorHC.glut antibodies. Secondary structure predictions for PorHC.glut, PorHC.call and PorHC.eff predict that a stretch of about 42 amino acids of PorHC.glut and 28 amino acids of PorHC.call and PorHC.eff forms amphipathic -helices with a total length of 6.3 nm and 4.2 nm respectively. This should be sufficient to cross the mycolic acid layer. Another objective of this work was to establish an heterologous expression system for corynebacterial channel-forming proteins, to investigate the channel-forming properties of the up to now only hypothetical porins PorA, PorB, PorC from C. efficiens and PorC from C. glutamicum. We could demonstrate with recombinant expression experiments in E. coli that porBC.eff and porCC.eff encode for channel-forming proteins. They are, like PorBC.glut, anion-selective with a similar single-channel conductance of 1 nS in 1 M KCl.
Flagellar motility and chemotaxis are essential virulence traits required for the ability of Helicobacter pylori to colonize the gastric mucosa. The flagellar regulatory network and the complex chemotaxis system of H. pylori are fundamentally different from other bacteria, despite many similarities. In H. pylori expression of the flagella is controlled by a complex regulatory cascade involving the two-component system FlgR-HP244, the sigma factors 54 and 28 and the anti-sigma 28 factor FlgM. Thus far, the input signal for histidine kinase HP244, which activates the transcriptional regulator FlgR, which triggers sigma factor 54-dependent transcription of the flagellar class 2 genes, is not known. Based on a yeast two-hybrid screen a highly significant protein-protein interaction between the H. pylori protein HP137 and both the histidine kinase HP244 and the flagellar hook protein HP908 (FlgE´) has been reported recently (Rain et al., 2001). So far, no function could be assigned to HP137. Interestingly, the interaction between HP137 and histidine kinase HP244 was observed in the characteristic block N sequence motif of the C-terminal ATP-binding kinase domain. In this work a potential role of HP137 in a feedback regulatory mechanism controlling the activity of histidine kinase HP244 in the flagellar regulation of H. pylori was investigated. Although the substitution of the gene encoding HP137 by a kanamycin cassette resulted in non-motile bacteria, the failure to restore motility by the reintroduction of hp137 in cis into the mutant strain, and the observation that HP137 has no significant effect on the activity of histidine kinase HP244 in vitro indicated that HP137 is not directly involved in flagellar regulation. Therefore, it was demonstrated that HP137 does not participate in the regulation of flagellar gene expression, neither in H. pylori nor in the closely related bacterium C. jejuni. Chemotactic signal transduction in H. pylori differs from the enterobacterial paradigm in several respects. In addition to a CheY response regulator protein (CheY1) H. pylori contains a CheY-like receiver domain (CheY2) which is C-terminally fused to the histidine kinase CheA. Furthermore, the genome of H. pylori encodes three CheV proteins consisting of an N-terminal CheW-like domain and a C-terminal receiver domain, while there are no orthologues of the chemotaxis genes cheB, cheR, and cheZ. To obtain insight into the mechanism controlling the chemotactic response of H. pylori the phosphotransfer reactions between the purified two-component signalling modules were investigated in vitro. Using in vitro phosphorylation assays it was shown that both H. pylori histidine kinases CheAY2 and CheA´ lacking the CheY-like domain (CheY2) act as ATP-dependent autokinases. Similar to other CheA proteins CheA´ shows a kinetic of phosphorylation represented by an exponential time course, while the kinetics of phosphorylation of CheAY2 is characterized by a short exponential time course followed by the hydrolysis of CheAY2~P. Therefore, it was demonstrated that the presence of the CheY2-like receiver domain influences the stability of the phosphorylated P1 domain of the CheA part of the bifunctional protein. Furthermore, it was proven that both CheY1 and CheY2 are phosphorylated by CheAY2 and CheA´~P and that the three CheV proteins mediate the dephosphorylation of CheA´~P, although with a clearly reduced efficiency as compared to CheY1 and CheY2. Moreover, CheA´ is capable of donating its phospho group to the CheY1 protein from C. jejuni and to CheY protein from E. coli. Retrophosphorylation experiments indicated that CheY1~P is able to transfer the phosphate group back to the HK CheAY2 and the receiver domain present in the bifunctional CheAY2 protein acts as a phosphate sink fine tuning the activity of the freely diffusible CheY1 protein, which is thought to interact with the flagellar motor. Hence, in this work evidence of a complex phosphorelay in the chemotaxis system was obtained which has similarities to other systems with multiple CheY proteins. The role of the CheV proteins remain unclear at the moment, but they might be engaged in a further fine regulation of the phosphate flow in this complex chemotaxis system and the independent function of the two domains CheA´ and CheY2 is not sufficient for normal chemotactic signalling in vivo.
It has been known for a long time that Drosophila can learn to discriminate not only between different odorants but also between different concentrations of the same odor. Olfactory associative learning has been described as a pairing between odorant and electric shock and since then, most of the experiments conducted in this respect have largely neglected the dual properties of odors: quality and intensity. For odorant-coupled short-term memory, a biochemical model has been proposed that mainly relies on the known cAMP signaling pathway. Mushroom bodies (MB) have been shown to be necessary and sufficient for this type of memory, and the MB-model of odor learning and short-term memory was established. Yet, theoretically, based on the MB-model, flies should not be able to learn concentrations if trained to the lower of the two concentrations in the test. In this thesis, I investigate the role of concentration-dependent learning, establishment of a concentration-dependent memory and their correlation to the standard two-odor learning as described by the MB-model. In order to highlight the difference between learning of quality and learning of intensity of the same odor I have tried to characterize the nature of the stimulus that is actually learned by the flies, leading to the conclusion that during the training flies learn all possible cues that are presented at the time. The type of the following test seems to govern the usage of the information available. This revealed a distinction between what flies learned and what is actually measured. Furthermore, I have shown that learning of concentration is associative and that it is symmetrical between high and low concentrations. I have also shown how the subjective quality perception of an odor changes with changing intensity, suggesting that one odor can have more than one scent. There is no proof that flies perceive a range of concentrations of one odorant as one (odor) quality. Flies display a certain level of concentration invariance that is limited and related to the particular concentration. Learning of concentration is relevant only to a limited range of concentrations within the boundaries of concentration invariance. Moreover, under certain conditions, two chemically distinct odorants could smell sufficiently similarly such, that they can be generalized between each other like if they would be of the same quality. Therefore, the abilities of the fly to identify the difference in quality or in intensity of the stimuli need to be distinguished. The way how the stimulus is analyzed and processed speaks in favor of a concept postulating the existence of two separated memories. To follow this concept, I have proposed a new form of memory called odor intensity memory (OIM), characterized it and compared it to other olfactory memories. OIM is independent of some members of the known cAMP signaling pathway and very likely forms the rutabaga-independent component of the standard two-odor memory. The rutabaga-dependent odor memory requires qualitatively different olfactory stimuli. OIM is revealed within the limits of concentration invariance where the memory test gives only sub-optimal performance for the concentration differences but discrimination of odor quality is not possible at all. Based on the available experimental tools, OIM seems to require the mushroom bodies the same as odor-quality memory but its properties are different. Flies can memorize the quality of several odorants at a given time but a newly formed memory of one odor interferes with the OIM stored before. In addition, the OIM lasts only 1 to 3 hours - much shorter than the odor-quality memory.