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- 311781 (1)
Für BMPs wie auch die anderen Mitglieder der TGF-beta-Superfamilie beginnt der Signalweg mit der Bindung des Liganden an zwei Typen transmembranärer Rezeptoren. Die Ligand-Rezeptor Interaktionen sind dabei durch unterschiedliche Affinität und Spezifität gekennzeichnet und bilden wahrscheinlich die Grundlage für das breite Spektrum biologischer Funktionen. In dieser Arbeit wurde mittels einer Struktur- und Funktionsanalyse von BMP Ligand-Rezeptor Komplexen die molekulare Basis für die Affinität und Spezifität dieser Wechselwirkungen untersucht. Hierfür wurde die Kristallstruktur des BMP-2 : BR-IAec Ligand-Rezeptor Komplexes bei einer Auflösung von 1,9Å ermittelt. Mit der höheren Auflösung war die Charakterisierung der geometrischen Parameter eines Netzwerks von zehn Wasserstoff-Brückenbindungen in der Interaktionsfläche zwischen BMP-2 und BR-IAec möglich. Deren zentrale Bedeutung für dieWechselwirkung konnte auch durch funktionelle Analyse bestätigt werden. So stellen die im Zentrum der Bindungsfläche liegenden Wasserstoff-Brückenbindungen BMP-2 Leu51 (N) : BR-IAec Gln86 (OE1) und BMP-2 Leu51 (O) : BR-IAec Gln86 (NE1), sowie die BMP-2 Asp53 (N) : BR-IAec Cys77 (O) H-Brücke die Hauptdeterminanten der Ligand-Rezeptor Bindung dar. Darüber hinaus ließ sich aus der strukturellen Analyse des "wrist"-Epitops von BMP-2 eine besondere Bedeutung der Prä-Helix Schleife L2, sowie der im Kontakt eingeschlossenen Wassermoleküle für die Anpassung der Bindungsfläche an unterschiedliche Interaktionspartner ableiten. Diese Ergebnisse bilden die Grundlage für ein neues Modell zur Beschreibung von Affinität und Spezifität der hochaffinen BMP-Typ I Rezeptor Interaktion. Dabei stellen die Wasserstoff-Brückenbindungen den Hauptanteil zur Bindungsenergie, während die hydrophobe Umgebung in der Interaktionsfläche die Bildung von Wasserstoff-Brückenbindungen energetisch begünstigen und hydrophobe Wechselwirkungen nur geringfügigen Einfluss auf die Affinität nehmen. Die vorliegenden Arbeit beschreibt zudem die Präparation und Kristallisation von binären Ligand-Typ I Rezeptor Komplexen für BMP-2, BMP-6 und GDF-5, sowie die der ternären Komplexe von BMP-2, BR-IAec und ActR-IIec bzw. BR-IIec. Die extrazellulären Domänen der hierfür verwendeten Rezeptoren wurden durch Expression in E.coli oder Sf-9 Insektenzellen erhalten. Ihre funktionelle Charakterisierung erfolgte durch BIAcore Interaktionsanalyse an immobilisierten Liganden, wobei in Abhängigkeit vom Ligand-Rezeptor Komplex unterschiedliche Affinitäten ermittelt werden konnten. In Übereinstimmung mit den hierbei erhaltenen Daten wurden die Ligand-BMP Typ IB Rezeptor Komplexe für BMP-2, BMP-6 und GDF-5, sowie der GDF-5 : BR-IAec Ligand-Rezeptor Komplex präpariert. Des Weiteren konnte die Bildung des ternären BMP-2 : BR-IAec : ActR-IIec Ligand-Rezeptor Komplexes in Lösung nachgewiesen werden. Für all diese Komplexe konnten Kristallisationsbedingungen ermittelt werden. Trotz Optimierung dieser Bedingungen reichte die Qualität der erhaltenen Kristalle nicht für eine Aufklärung der Struktur aus. Für eine detailliertes Verständnis der Mechanismen der Rezeptoraktivierung muss die strukturelle und funktionelle Charakterisierung von BMP Ligand-Rezeptor Komplexen fortgeführt werden. Die präsentierten Ergebnisse deuten darauf hin, dass über die Kenntnis der einzelnen Affinitäten und die gezielte Modifikation der Interaktionspartner eine erfolgreiche Strukturanalyse dieser Ligand-Rezeptor Komplexe möglich ist.
Interleukin-4 (IL-4) und Interleukin-13 (IL-13) sind bedeutende Regulatorproteine des Immunsystems. Sie spielen eine entscheidende Rolle bei der Entstehung und dem Verlauf von allergischen Erkrankungen, wie z.B. Asthma. Um ihre Signale in die Zielzelle zu transduzieren, kann von beiden Zytokinen der gleiche Zelloberflächenrezeptor verwendet werden, wodurch sich die überlappenden, biologischen Funktionen erklären lassen. Dieser gemeinsam genutzte Rezeptor ist aus den beiden Untereinheiten IL-4Ralpha; und IL-13Ralpha1 aufgebaut. Da IL-4 und IL-13 auf Aminosäureebene nur etwa 25% Sequenzidentität besitzen und stark unterschiedliche Affinitäten zu den beiden Rezeptorketten besitzen, stellt sich die Frage, durch welchen molekularen Erkennungsmechanismus, die Affinität und die Spezifität der Ligand-Rezeptor-Interaktion unabhängig voneinander reguliert werden kann. In dieser Arbeit gelang es, rekombinante Expressions- und Aufreinigungsstrategien für IL-13 und die extrazellulären Domänen der Rezeptorketten IL-13Ralpha1 und IL-13Ralpha2 zu entwickeln. Dadurch war es mögliche, eine breite Mutations-/Interaktionsanalyse der IL-13Ralpha1-Kette durchzuführen.Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass die N-terminale FnIII-ähnliche Domäne von IL-13Ralpha1 sowohl an der Bindung von IL-13 als auch an der Interaktion mit IL-4 beteiligt ist. Im funktionellen Bindeepitop der IL-13Ralpha1-Kette wurden die Aminosäurereste Arg84, Phe253 und Tyr321 als Hauptbindungsdeterminanten für die Interaktion mit IL-13 identifiziert. Durch die Interaktionsstudien der IL-13Ralpha1-Varianten mit IL-4 wurde gezeigt, dass diese Hauptbindungsdeterminanten auch für die niederaffine Bindung von IL-4 von größter Bedeutung sind. Die funktionellen Bindeepitope für IL-4 und IL-13 auf der IL-13Ralpha1-Kette sind nahezu identisch und überlappen in einem großen Bereich. Aufgrund der Ergebnisse aus der Mutagenesestudie war es möglich, ein Strukturmodell der extrazellulären Domäne der IL-13Ralpha1-Kette zu erstellen. Darin wird eine neuartige Orientierung der N-terminalen FnIII-Domäne und deren Beteiligung an der Ligandeninteraktion dargestellt. Mit Hilfe des Strukturmodells gelang es, neue Aminosäurerest auf der Oberfläche von IL-13 zu identifizieren, die an der Bindung zu IL-13Ralpha1 beteiligt sind, was die Relevanz des Strukturmodells weiter unterstreicht. In einem weiteren Teil dieser Arbeit wurde versucht, den molekularen Mechanismus aufzuklären, durch den es den superagonistischen IL-4-Varianten T13D und F82D gelingt, mit dreifach höherer Affinität an die IL-4Ralpha-Kette zu binden, als wildtypischer Ligand. Durch strukturelle und funktionelle Untersuchungen wurde gezeigt, dass der Affinitätssteigerung ein indirekter Mechanismus zugrunde liegt, bei dem eine Konformationsänderung und die Fixierung der Arg85-Seitenkette von IL-4 zur Ausbildung von zusätzlichen Ligand-Rezeptor-Interaktionen führt. Das Bindeepitop zwischen IL-4 und der IL-4Ralpha-Kette besitzt eine modulare Architektur aus drei unabhängig voneinander agierenden Interaktionsclustern. Bei der Interaktion von wildtypischem IL-4 mit IL-4Ralpha tragen nur zwei dieser Cluster in signifikanter Weise zur freien Bindeenergie bei. Im Falle der superagonistischen IL-4-Varianten ist jedoch auch das dritte Cluster an der Generierung von zusätzlicher, freier Bindeenergie beteiligt, wodurch die Affinität zwischen Ligand und Rezeptor erhöht wird. Damit stellt der modulare Aufbau der Interaktionsfläche zwischen IL-4 und der IL-4Ralpha-Kette möglicherweise einen Mechanismus dar, über den Proteine die Affinität von Wechselwirkungen über einen großen Bereicht variieren können, ohne dabei Spezifität einzubüssen. Da IL-4 und IL-13 als interessante Zielmoleküle für die Therapie von allergischen und asthmatischen Erkrankungen erkannt worden sind, können die in der vorliegenden Arbeit gewonnenen Informationen über den Bindemechanismus und die Einblicke in den molekularen Charakter der Interaktion zwischen den beiden Zytokinen und ihren spezifischen Rezeptorketten dabei helfen, neuartige und hoch spezifische, inhibitorische Moleküle zu entwickeln.
This work deals with channel-tunnel dependent multidrug efflux pumps and type I secretion systems, more concrete with the improved classification of the adaptor protein family, the characterization of the TolC-homologue protein HI1462 of Haemophilus influenzae, and the molecular characterization of the interaction between TolC and AcrA of Escherichia coli.
Study of Omp85 Family Proteins YaeT and YtfM and Multidrug Export Machineries in Escherichia coli
(2006)
In this study the Omp85 family proteins YaeT and YtfM of Escherichia coli were investigated by using biochemical and electrophysiological methods as well as bioinformatical and structural analysis. In addition, knock-out strains were constructed to further study the relevance of these proteins in vivo. The prediction that Omp85 proteins are composed of two domains, a periplasmic amino-terminal POTRA (polypeptide translocation associated) domain and a carboxy-terminal domain anchoring these proteins in the outer membrane, was confirmed by the construction of mutants. It could be shown that the carboxy-terminal part of the proteins is able to insert into the outer bacterial membrane, even if the POTRA domain is removed. Furthermore, pore-forming activity in the black-lipid bilayer was observed for both full-length proteins as well as their carboxy-terminal membrane located parts. The channels formed by both proteins in the black lipid bilayer showed variable single channel conductance states rather than a defined value for conductance. In 1M KCl, e.g. YaeT forms pores with a channel conductance of 100 to 600 pS containing a most abundant value at 400 pS. This variability is at least reasonable for YaeT due to a prerequisite flexibility of its channel for OMP insertion. YaeT was identified to form a cation selective, YtfM an anion selective channel, which is less pH dependent than YaeT. Another feature of the YaeT channel is that its selectivity and conductance is influenced by charged detergent molecules indicating an accumulation of these molecules in hydrophobic pockets inside the compact channel. YaeT revealed heat-modifiable mobility in SDS-PAGE which is characteristic for β-barrel OMPs, whereas YtfM did not show this behaviour. This result could be explained by sequence alignment and structural comparison of YaeT and YtfM via CD and FTIR spectra displaying much higher β-strand content for the carboxy-terminal part of YaeT compared to YtfM. Since the carboxy-terminal parts were shown to have pore forming ability and are inserted in the OM in vivo, the substitution of the essential protein YaeT by its carboxy-terminal mutant was attempted in a yaeT knock-out strain. The carboxy-terminal half of YaeT was not sufficient to compensate depletion of the full-length protein indicating an important role of the amino-terminus for cell viability. In contrary, YtfM is shown to be a non-essential protein and lack of YtfM had no effects on the composition and integrity of the OM. However, chromosomal deletion of ytfM remarkably reduced the growth rate of cells. This study provides the first detailed investigation of the structure of YaeT and describes its electrophysiological behaviour, which could be a basis for further studies of YaeT and its substrate proteins. Furthermore, YtfM was characterised and its in vivo function was investigated revealing YtfM as the second Omp85 family protein of importance in E. coli. In a second part of this study assembly and function of multidrug efflux pumps were investigated. Drug efflux pumps are tripartite export machineries in the cell envelope of Gram-negative bacteria conferring multidrug resistance and therefore causing severe problems for medical treatment of diseases. Protein structures of all three efflux pump components are solved, but the exact interaction sites are still unknown. Assembly of a hybrid exporter system composed of the Pseudomonas aeruginosa channel tunnel OprM, the E. coli adaptor protein AcrA and its associated transporter AcrB could be shown by chemical cross-linking, even though this efflux pump is not functional. Exchange of the hairpin domain of AcrA by the corresponding hairpin from the adaptor protein MexA of P. aeruginosa restored functionality tested by antibiotic sensitivity assays. This shows the importance of the MexA hairpin domain for functional interaction with the OprM channel tunnel. Interestingly, the hybrid protein was also able to assemble with TolC as outer membrane component to form a functional efflux pump indicating a higher flexibility of TolC compared to OprM concerning interaction partners. Based on these results, an interaction model of the hairpin domain and the channel tunnel on molecular level for AcrA and TolC as well as MexA and OprM, respectively, is presented. This model provides a basis for directed mutagenesis to reveal the exact contact sites of the hairpin of the adapter protein and the outer membrane component
Study of the properties of channel-forming proteins of the cell walls of different Corynebacteriae
(2008)
The genus Corynebacterium belongs, together with Mycobacterium, Nocardia, Rhodococcus and further closely related genera, to the distinctive suprageneric taxon mycolata. Many species within this diverse group of mycolic acid containing actinomycetes are known either because of their medical or biotechnological relevance. For instance, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Mycobacterium leprae, Corynebacterium diphtheriae and Nocardia farcinica, causer of most dangerous bacterial infectious diseases world-wide, are among this exceptional group of Gram-positive bacteria. Likewise of importance are some harmless mycolata species which find use in industrial settings. Corynebacterium glutamicum and Corynebacterium efficiens are, e.g., potent producers of the flavour enhancer glutamate and the animal feed additive lysine, while several Rhodococcus species are applied in the production of acrylic acids. The cell wall of mycolata species, compared with that of Gram-positive bacteria, exhibits an unusual composition and organization. Besides an arabinogalactan-peptidoglycan complex, the cell walls of most actinomycetes contain large amounts of mycolic acids. Comparable to the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria, these long-chained branched fatty acids form a highly impermeable hydrophobic outer layer which provides the basis of the exceptional drug resistance of mycolata species. Like the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria, the cell wall of mycolata contains channel-forming proteins that allow the passage of hydrophilic solutes. By permitting and controlling the exchange and communication between the interior of the cell and the environment in which the bacterium lives, the channels play an important role for the function of the bacterial cell envelope. This thesis aimed to extend our knowledge about cell wall channels in corynebacteria. For this purpose, we examined PorA and PorH proteins that have been associated by previous studies with cell wall pores in C. glutamicum, C. efficiens and Corynebacterium callunae in order to resolve unanswered questions and to gain structural knowledge. We also investigated cell walls of pathogenic corynebacteria, in particular of Corynebacterium diphtheriae and Corynebacterium jeikeium, to investigate if these species possessed channels as is the case with their harmless relatives. In this work we provided evidence for the existence of large and water-filled cell wall channels in C. diphtheriae and C. jeikeium. Moreover, we demonstrated that the major cell wall channels of C. glutamicum, C. efficiens and C. diphtheriae consist of two distinctive polypeptides; one of whom belongs to the class of PorH proteins and the other to the class of PorA proteins. This heteromeric structure of channels of corynebacteria represents a novelty for channels of the mycolata. In contrast, the C. jeikeium channel is solely constituted by a single protein, CjPorA, arranged as an oligomer. Although the molecular mass of this protein (4kDa) is comparable to those of PorH and PorA proteins (5-7 kDa), it shares no distinctive homology in its primary sequence with them. However, there is evidence for relationship between CjPorA and PorH/PorA proteins because the gene jk0268, coding for CjPorA, is localized in a chromosomal region of C. jeikeium that corresponds to the genomic region containing the porH/porA genes in the other corynebacteria. This suggests that jk0268 (coding for the homomeric cell wall channel in C. jeikeium) and the porH/porA genes of C. glutamicum, C. efficiens and C. diphtheriae (coding for heteromeric cell wall channels) are presumably descendants of a common ancestor gene. This assumption gets support from data on phylogenetic analysis of the genus Corynebacterium. Moreover, these data suggest that the here investigated cell wall channels are presumably widespread within this genus. A profound knowledge of cell wall channels, building the main passage of solutes through the outer mycolate membrane in corynebacteria and other members of the mycolata, can be of great economical and medical value.
In the eusocial insect honeybee (Apis mellifera), many sterile worker bees live together with a reproductive queen in a colony. All tasks of the colony are performed by the workers, undergoing age-dependent division of labor. Beginning as hive bees, they take on tasks inside the hive such as cleaning or the producing of larval food, later developing into foragers. With that, the perception of sweetness plays a crucial role for all honeybees whether they are sitting on the honey stores in the hive or foraging for food. Their ability to sense sweetness is undoubtedly necessary to develop and evaluate food sources. Many of the behavioral decisions in honeybees are based on sugar perception, either on an individual level for ingestion, or for social behavior such as the impulse to collect or process nectar. In this context, honeybees show a complex spectrum of abilities to perceive sweetness on many levels. They are able to perceive at least seven types of sugars and decide to collect them for the colony. Further, they seem to distinguish between these sugars or at least show clear preferences when collecting them. Additionally, the perception of sugar is not rigid in honeybees. For instance, their responsiveness towards sugar changes during the transition from in-hive bees (e.g. nurses) to foraging and is linked to the division of labor. Other direct or immediate factors changing responsiveness to sugars are stress, starvation or underlying factors, such as genotype.
Interestingly, the complexity in their sugar perception is in stark contrast to the fact that honeybees seem to have only three predicted sugar receptors.
In this work, we were able to characterize the three known sugar receptors (AmGr1, AmGr2 and AmGr3) of the honeybee fully and comprehensively in oocytes (Manuscript II, Chapter 3 and Manuscript III, Chapter 4). We could show that AmGr1 is a broad sugar receptor reacting to sucrose, glucose, maltose, melezitose and trehalose (which is the honeybees’ main blood sugar), but not fructose. AmGr2 acts as its co-receptor altering AmGr1’s specificity, AmGr3 is a specific fructose receptor and we proved the heterodimerization of all receptors. With my studies, I was able to reproduce and compare the ligand specificity of the sugar receptors in vivo by generating receptor mutants with CRISPR/Cas9. With this thesis, I was able to define AmGr1 and AmGr3 as the honeybees’ basis receptors already capable to detect all sugars of its known taste spectrum.
In the expression analysis of my doctoral thesis (Manuscript I, Chapter 2) I demonstrated that both basis receptors are expressed in the antennae and the brain of nurse bees and foragers. This thesis assumes that AmGr3 (like the Drosophila homologue) functions as a sensor for fructose, which might be the satiety signal, while AmGr1 can sense trehalose as the main blood sugar in the brain. Both receptors show a reduced expression in the brain of foragers when compared with nurse bees. These results may reflect the higher concentrated diet of nurse bees in the hive. The higher number of receptors in the brain may allow nurse bees to perceive hunger earlier and to consume the food their sitting on. Forager bees have to be more persistent to hunger, when they are foraging, and food is not so accessible. The findings of reduced expression of the fructose receptor AmGr3 in the antennae of nurse bees are congruent with my other result that nurse bees are also less responsive to fructose at the antennae when compared to foragers (Manuscript I, Chapter 2). This is possible, since nurse bees sit more likely on ripe honey which contains not only higher levels of sugars but also monosaccharides (such as fructose), while foragers have to evaluate less-concentrated nectar.
My investigations of the expression of AmGr1 in the antennae of honeybees found no differences between nurse bees and foragers, although foragers are more responsive to the respective sugar sucrose (Manuscript I, Chapter 2). Considering my finding that AmGr2 is the co-receptor of AmGr1, it can be assumed that AmGr1 and the mediated sucrose taste might not be directly controlled by its expression, but indirectly by its co-receptor. My thesis therefore clearly shows that sugar perception is associated with division of labor in honeybees and appears to be directly or indirectly regulated via expression.
The comparison with a characterization study using other bee breeds and thus an alternative protein sequence of AmGr1 shows that co-expression of different AmGr1 versions with AmGr2 alters the sugar response differently. Therefore, this thesis provides first important indications that alternative splicing could also represent an important regulatory mechanism for sugar perception in honeybees.
Further, I found out that the bitter compound quinine lowers the reward quality in learning experiments for honeybees (Manuscript IV, Chapter 5). So far, no bitter receptor has been found in the genome of honeybees and this thesis strongly assumes that bitter substances such as quinine inhibit sugar receptors in honeybees. With this finding, my work includes other molecules as possible regulatory mechanism in the honeybee sugar perception as well. We showed that the inhibitory effect is lower for fructose compared to sucrose. Considering that sugar signals might be processed as differently attractive in honeybees, this thesis concludes that the sugar receptor inhibition via quinine in honeybees might depend on the receptor (or its co-receptor), is concentration-dependent and based on the salience or attractiveness and concentration of the sugar present.
With my thesis, I was able to expand the knowledge on honeybee’s sugar perception and formulate a complex, comprehensive overview. Thereby, I demonstrated the multidimensional mechanism that regulates the sugar receptors and thus the sugar perception of honeybees. With this work, I defined AmGr1 and AmGr3 as the basis of sugar perception and enlarged these components to the co-receptor AmGr2 and the possible splice variants of AmGr1. I further demonstrated how those sugar receptor components function, interact and that they are clearly involved in the division of labor in honeybees. In summary, my thesis describes the mechanisms that enable honeybees to perceive sugar in a complex way, even though they inhere a limited number of sugar receptors. My data strongly suggest that honeybees overall might not only differentiate sugars and their diet by their general sweetness (as expected with only one main sugar receptor). The found sugar receptor mechanisms and their interplay further suggest that honeybees might be able to discriminate directly between monosaccharides and disaccharides or sugar molecules and with that their diet (honey and nectar).
Sugar reward learning in Drosophila : neuronal circuits in Drosophila associative olfactory learning
(2006)
Genetic intervention in the fly Drosophila melanogaster has provided strong evidence that the mushroom bodies of the insect brain act as the seat of memory traces for aversive and appetitive olfactory learning (reviewed in Heisenberg, 2003). In flies, electroshock is mainly used as negative reinforcer. Unfortunately this fact complicates a comparative consideration with other inscets as most studies use sugar as positive reinforcer. For example, several lines of evidence from honeybee and moth have suggested another site, the antennal lobe, to house neuronal plasticity underlying appetitive olfactory memory (reviewed in Menzel, 2001; Daly et al., 2004). Because of this I focused my work mainly on appetitive olfactory learning. In the first part of my thesis, I used a novel genetic tool, the TARGET system (McGuire et al., 2003), which allows the temporally controlled expression of a given effector gene in a defined set of cells. Comparing effector genes which either block neurotransmission or ablate cells showed important differences, revealing that selection of the appropriate effector gene is critical for evaluating the function of neural circuits. In the second part, a new engram of olfactory memory in the Drosophila projection neurons is described by restoring Rutabaga adenlylate cyclase (rut-AC) activity specifically in these cells. Expression of wild-type rutabaga in the projection neurons fully rescued the defect in sugar reward memory, but not in aversive electric shock memory. No difference was found in the stability of the appetitive memories rescued either in projection neurons or Kenyon cells. In the third part of the thesis I tried to understand how the reinforcing signals for sugar reward are internally represented. In the bee Hammer (1993) described a single octopaminergic neuron – called VUMmx1 – that mediates the sugar stimulus in associative olfactory reward learning. Analysis of single VUM neurons in the fly (Selcho, 2006) identified a neuron with a similar morphology as the VUMmx1 neuron. As there is a mutant in Drosophila lacking the last enzymatic step in octopamine synthesis (Monastirioti et al., 1996), Tyramine beta Hydroxylase, I was able to show that local Tyramine beta Hydroxylase expression successfully rescued sugar reward learning. This allows to conclude that about 250 cells including the VUM cluster are sufficient for mediating the sugar reinforcement signal in the fly. The description of a VUMmx1 similar neuron and the involvement of the VUM cluster in mediating the octopaminergic sugar stimulus are the first steps in establishing a neuronal map for US processing in Drosophila. Based on this work several experiments are contrivable to reach this ultimate goal in the fly. Taken together, the described similiarities between Drosophila and honeybee regarding the memory organisation in MBs and PNs and the proposed internal representation of the sugar reward suggest an evolutionarily conserved mechanism for appetitive olfactory learning in insects.
Sumoylation of transcription factors modulate their activity (either upregulating or downregulating) by altering protein-protein interactions as well as subcelluar/subnuclear localization. The transcription factor family of NFAT (Nuclear Factor of Activated T cells) plays an important role in cytokine gene regulation in T cells. Due to alternative usage of two promoters (P1 & P2), two polyadenylation sites (pA1 and pA2) and alternative splicing events, NFATc1 is expressed in six isoforms which are NFATc1/alphaA, betaA, alphaB, betaB, alphaC and betaC, where alpha and beta refer to two different 1st exons and A, B, C to the differentially spliced and extended C-termini. The short isoforms of NFATc1 (NF-ATc1/A) contain a relatively short C terminus whereas, the longer isoforms, B and C, span the extra C-terminal peptides of 128 and 246 aa, respectively. To analyze the specific biological effects of NFATc1 isoform, a yeast two hybrid screening of a human spleen cDNA library with extra C-terminal peptide of NFATc1 as a bait, was performed. At the end of the assay, the proteins involved in the sumoylation pathway such as Ubc9, PIAS1 were detected with highest frequencies and subsequently were were able to demonstrate that NFATc1 is sumoylated. The extent of sumoylation is isoform specific. While NFATc1/A, harboring only one sumoylation site, shows very weak sumoylation, the two additional sites within NFATc1/C lead to efficient sumoylation. This modification directs NFATc1/C into SUMO-1 bodies, which in turn colocalize with PML-nbs. Furthermore, sumoylated NFATc1/C recruits the transcriptional co-repressors HDAC (both class I as well as class II HDACs) which results in a significant decrease of the level of histone acetylation on the IL-2 promoter, an important NFATc1 target gene. As a consequence of this, a decrease of IL-2 production was observed, while NFATc1/C, which can no longer be sumoylated due to mutating the target lysines, exhibited dramatic elevated transcriptional potential on the IL2 promoter. This supports our finding from IL-2 promoter-driven reporter gene assay, which shows downregulation of NFATc1/C transactivation upon sumoylation. Hence, sumoylation exerts a negative effect on NFATc1 transcriptioanl activity. Immunofluorescence studies showed SUMO modification to relocate NFATc1/C also into transcriptionally inactive heterochromatin regions, demonstrated by H3K9 m3 (tri-methylated histone lysine 9) colocalization studies. Interestingly, in the absence of sumoylation, NFATc1 was partially colocalized with transcriptional hotspots in the nucleus, which might contribute to the higher transcription potentiality of the non-sumoylated NFATc1. It is important to note that, the transcriptional activity of other NFATc1 target genes (IL-13, IFN-gamma etc.) was positively upregulated upon sumoylation of NFATc1, suggesting a non-universal effect of sumoylation on NFATc1/C function. In conclusion, sumoylation directs NFATc1 into nuclear bodies where it interacts with transcriptional co-repressors and relocalize itself with heterochromatin, leading to repression of NFATc1/C-mediated transcription. Most importantly, the effect of NFATc1/C sumoylation is promoter specific. Taken together, SUMO modification alters the function of NFATc1 from an activator to a site-specific transcriptional repressor. This study unraveled a novel regulatory mechanism, which controls isoform specific NFATc1 function.
Plasma membrane receptors are the most crucial and most commonly studied components of cells, since they not only ensure communication between the extracellular space and cells, but are also responsible for the regulation of cell cycle and cell division. The composition of the surface receptors, the so-called "Receptome", differs and is characteristic for certain cell types. Due to their significance, receptors have been important target structures for diagnostic and therapy in cancer medicine and often show aberrant expression patterns in various cancers compared to healthy cells. However, these aberrations can also be exploited and targeted by different medical approaches, as in the case of personalized immunotherapy. In addition, advances in modern fluorescence microscopy by so-called single molecule techniques allow for unprecedented sensitive visualization and quantification of molecules with an attainable spatial resolution of 10-20 nm, allowing for the detection of both stoichiometric and expression density differences.
In this work, the single molecule sensitive method dSTORM was applied to quantify the receptor composition of various cell lines as well as in primary samples obtained from patients with hematologic malignancies. The focus of this work lies on artefact free quantification, stoichiometric analyses of oligomerization states and co localization analyses of membrane receptors.
Basic requirements for the quantification of receptors are dyes with good photoswitching properties and labels that specifically mark the target structure without generating background through non-specific binding. To ensure this, antibodies with a predefined DOL (degree of labeling) were used, which are also standard in flow cytometry. First background reduction protocols were established on cell lines prior analyses in primary patient samples. Quantitative analyses showed clear expression differences between the cell lines and the patient cells, but also between individual patients.
An important component of this work is the ability to detect the oligomerization states of receptors, which enables a more accurate quantification of membrane receptor densities compared to standard flow cytometry. It also provides information about the activation of a certain receptor, for example of FLT3, a tyrosine kinase, dimerizing upon activation. For this purpose, different well-known monomers and dimers were compared to distinguish the typical localization statistics of single bound antibodies from two or more antibodies that are in proximity. Further experiments as well as co localization analyses proved that antibodies can bind to closely adjacent epitopes despite their size.
These analytical methods were subsequently applied for quantification and visualization of receptors in two clinically relevant examples. Firstly, various therapeutically relevant receptors such as CD38, BCMA and SLAMF7 for multiple myeloma, a malignant disease of plasma cells, were analyzed and quantified on patient cells. Furthermore, the influence of TP53 and KRAS mutations on receptor expression levels was investigated using the multiple myeloma cell lines OPM2 and AMO1, showing clear differences in certain receptor quantities.
Secondly, FLT3 which is a therapeutic target receptor for acute myeloid leukemia, was quantified and stoichiometrically analyzed on both cell lines and patient cells. In addition, cells that have developed resistance against midostaurin were compared with cells that still respond to this type I tyrosine-kinase-inhibitor for their FLT3 receptor expression and oligomerization state.
Humans tend to believe in what they can see with their own eyes. Hence, visualization methods like microscopy have always been extremely popular since their invention in the 17th century. With the advent of super-resolution microscopy, the diffraction limit of ~200 - 250 nm could be overcome to enable more detailed insights into biological samples. Especially the single molecule localization microscopy method dSTORM offers the possibility of quantitative bioimaging. Hereby, the repetitive photoswitching of organic dyes in the presence of thiols is exploited to enable a lateral resolution of 20 nm. Another, recently introduced super-resolution method is expansion microscopy (ExM) which physically expands the sample to increase the resolution by the expansion factor from four to even twenty. To enable this, the sample is embedded into a hydrogel, homogenized using an unspecific proteinase and expanded in distilled water. Within this thesis, both methods were used to shed light on plasma membrane receptor distributions and different bacterial and fungal pathogens. In the first part of this thesis dSTORM was used to elucidate the “Receptome”, the entirety of all membrane receptors, of the cell line Jurkat T-cells and primary T-cells. Within this project we could successfully visualize and quantify the distribution of the plasma membrane receptors CD2, CD3, CD4, CD5, CD7, CD11a, CD20, CD28, CD45, CD69 and CD105 with receptor densities ranging from 0.8 cluster/µm² in case of CD20 and 81.4 cluster/µm² for the highly abundant CD45 in activated primary T-cells at the basal membrane. Hereby, we could also demonstrate a homogeneous distribution of most receptors, while only few were clustered. In the case of CD3-clusters were detected in Jurkat T-cells and in primary activated T-cells, but not in naïve ones, demonstrating the activation of this receptor. This was followed by the application of dSTORM to three different clinical projects involving the receptors CD38, BCMA and CD20 which are immunotherapeutic targets by monoclonal antibodies and CAR T-cells. In the first two projects dSTORM was applied to determine the receptor upregulation upon exposure of various drugs to MM1.S cells or primary multiple myeloma patient cells. This increase in membrane receptor expression can subsequently enhance the efficacy of therapies directed against these receptors. Within the CD20-project, the superior sensitivity of dSTORM compared to flow cytometry could be demonstrated. Hereby, a substantially higher fraction of CD20-positive patient cells was detected by dSTORM than by flow cytometry. In addition, we could show that by dSTORM CD20-positive evaluated cells were eradicated by immunotherapeutic CAR T-cell treatment. These studies were followed by whole cell super-resolution imaging using both LLS-3D dSTORM and 10x ExM to exclude any artifacts caused by interactions with the glass surface. In 10x ExM signal amplification via biotinylated primary antibodies and streptavidin ATTO 643 was essential to detect even single antibodies directed against the heterodimer CD11a with standard confocal microscopes. Albeit probably not quantitative due to the process of gelation, digestion and expansion during the ExM protocol, even some putative dimers of the receptor CD2 could be visualized using 10x ExM-SIM, similar to dSTORM experiments. Within the second part of this thesis, expansion microscopy was established in bacterial and fungal pathogens. ExM enabled not only an isotropic fourfold expansion of Chlamydia trachomatis, but also allowed the discrimination between the two developmental forms by the chlamydial size after expansion into reticulate and elementary bodies. Hereafter, a new α-NH2-ω-N3-C6-ceramide was introduced enabling an efficient fixation and for the first time the use of lipids in both, 4x and 10x ExM, termed sphingolipid ExM. This compound was used to investigate the ceramide uptake and incorporation into the cell membrane of Chlamydia trachomatis and Simkania negevensis. For Chlamydia trachomatis the combined resolution power of 10x ExM and SIM even allowed the visualization of both bacterial membranes within a distance of ~30 nm. Finally, ExM was applied to the three different fungi Ustilago maydis, Fusarium oxysporum and Aspergillus fumigatus after enzymatic removal of the fungal cell wall. In case of Ustilago maydis sporidia this digestion could be applied to both, living cells resulting in protoplasts and to fixed cells, preserving the fungal morphology. This new protocol could be demonstrated for immunostainings and fluorescent proteins of the three different fungi.