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The scope of this work is to develop a novel single-molecule imaging technique by combining atomic force microscopy (AFM) and optical fluorescence microscopy. The technique is used for characterizing the structural properties of multi-protein complexes. The high-resolution fluorescence microscopy and AFM are combined (FIONA-AFM) to allow for the identification of individual proteins in such complexes. This is achieved by labeling single proteins with fluorescent dyes and determining the positions of these fluorophores with high precision in an optical image. The same area of the sample is subsequently scanned by AFM. Finally, the two images are aligned and the positions of the fluorophores are displayed on top of the topographical data. Using quantum dots as fiducial markers in addition to fluorescently labeled proteins, fluorescence and AFM information can be aligned with an accuracy better than 10 nm, which is sufficient to identify single fluorescently labeled proteins in most multi-protein complexes. The limitations of localization precision and accuracy in fluorescence and AFM images are investigated, including their effects on the overall registration accuracy of FIONA-AFM hybrid images. This combination of the two complementary techniques opens a wide spectrum of possible applications to the study of protein interactions, because AFM can yield high resolution (5–10 nm) information about the conformational properties of multi-protein complexes while the fluorescence can indicate spatial relationships of the proteins within the complexes. Additionally, computer simulations are performed in order to validate the accuracy of the registration algorithm.
The Nucleotide Excision Repair (NER) pathway is able to remove a vast diversity of structurally unrelated DNA lesions and is the only repair mechanism in humans responsible for the excision of UV induced DNA damages. The NER mechanism raises two fundamental questions: 1) How is DNA damage recognition achieved discriminating damaged from non damaged DNA? 2) How is DNA incision regulated preventing endonucleases to cleave DNA non specifically but induce and ensure dual incision of damaged DNA? Thus, the aim of this work was to investigate the mechanisms leading from recognition to incision of damaged DNA. To decipher the underlying process of damage recognition in a prokaryotic model system, the intention of the first part of this work was to co crystallize the helicase UvrB form Bacillus caldotenax together with a DNA substrate comprising a fluorescein adducted thymine as an NER substrate. Incision assays were performed to address the question whether UvrB in complex with the endonuclease UvrC is able to specifically incise damaged DNA employing DNA substrates with unpaired regions at different positions with respect to the DNA lesion. The results presented here indicate that the formation of a specific pre incision complex is independent of the damage sensor UvrA. The preference for 5’ bubble substrate suggests that UvrB is able to slide along the DNA favorably in a 5’ → 3’ direction until it directly encounters a DNA damage on the translocating strand to then recruit the endonuclease UvrC. In the second part of this work, the novel endonuclease Bax1 from Thermoplasma acidophilum was characterized. Due to its close association to archaeal XPB, a potential involvement of Bax1 in archaeal NER has been postulated. Bax1 was shown to be a Mg2+ dependent, structure specific endonuclease incising 3’ overhang substrates in the single stranded region close to the ssDNA/dsDNA junction. Site directed mutagenesis of conserved amino acids was employed to identify putative active site residues of Bax1. In complex with the helicase XPB, however, incision activity of Bax1 is altered regarding substrate specificity. The presence of two distinct XPB/Bax1 complexes with different endonuclease activities indicates that XPB regulates Bax1 incision activity providing insights into the physical and functional interactions of XPB and Bax1.
In the context of this thesis, I investigated the molecular causes and functional consequences of genetic instability using a human inherited disease, Fanconi anemia. FA patients display a highly variable clinical phenotype, including congenital abnormalities, progressive bone marrow failure and a high cancer risk. The FA cellular phenotype is characterized by spontaneous and inducible chromosomal instability, and a typical S/G2 phase arrest after exposure to DNA-damaging agents. So far, 13 genes have been identified, whose biallelic (or, in the case of X-linked FANCB, hemizygous) mutations cause this multisystem disorder. The FA proteins interact in a multiprotein network, instrumental and essential in the cellular response to DNA damage. A more comprehensive summary of Fanconi anemia and its myriad clinical, cellular and molecular manifestations is provided in the introduction section of this thesis. The results of my experimental work are presented as published papers and manuscripts ready to be submitted. In the first publication, I investigated the connection between FA genes and bladder tumors. The question I tried to answer was whether a disruption of the FA/BRCA pathway may be a frequent and possibly causal event in bladder cancer, explaining the hypersensitivity of these cells to DNA-crosslinking agents. On the basis of my experimental data I arrived at the conclusion that disruption of the FA/BRCA pathway might be detrimental rather than advantageous for the majority tumor types by rendering them vulnerable towards DNA damaging agents and oxidative stress. The second publication deals with the gene coding for the core complex protein FANCE and tries to answer the question why FANCE is so rarely affected among FA-patients. The conclusion from these studies is that like FANCF, FANCE functions as a probable adaptor protein with a high tolerance towards amino acid substitutions which would explain the relative rareness of FA-E patients. I have also investigated the FANCL gene whose product functions as the catalytic subunit of the E3 ligase. The third publication addresses this issue by providing the first comprehensive description of genetic alterations and phenotypic manifestations in a series of three FA-L patients. The results of my study show that genetic alterations of FANCL are compatible with survival, these alterations may include large deletions such as so far common only in the FANCA gene, FA-L phenotypes can be mild to severe, and FANCL belongs to the group of FA genes that may undergo somatic reversion. The central protein of the FA/BRCA network, FANCD2, is the subject of the fourth publication presented in this thesis. Most importantly, we were able to show that there are no biallelic null mutations in FANCD2. Correspondingly, residual protein of both FANCD2-isotypes (FANCD2-S and FANCD2-L) was present in all available patient cell lines. This suggests that complete abrogation of the FANCD2 protein cannot be tolerated and causes early embryonic lethality. There are at least three FA proteins that are not required for the posttranslational modification of FANCD2. One of these proteins is the 5’-3’ helicase BRIP1 (BRCA1-interacting protein 1), a protein that interacts directly with the breast cancer susceptibility protein BRCA1. I participated in the identification of BRIP1 as the FA protein FANCJ. This discovery is described in the fifth publication of this thesis. The newly discovered protein BRIP1/FANCJ seems to act as one of the mediators of genomic maintenance downstream of FANCD2. Another protein identified downstream of FANCD2 is PALB2. PALB2 was originally discovered as “partner and localizer of BRCA2”. In a candidate gene approach we tested patients with early childhood cancers but without mutations in BRCA2 for mutations in PALB2 (publication 6). PALB2 was identified as a novel FA gene and designated FANCN. FA-N patients are very severely affected. The last publication included in my thesis describes the identification of the FA gene FANCI as the second monoubiquitinated member of the FA/BRCA pathway (publication 7). We identified biallelic mutations in KIAA1794 in four FA patients, thus proving the genuine FA-nature of this candidate sequence. The general discussion provides a synopsis of the results and conclusions of my work with the state of art of FA research.
Human caretaker genes play a central role in the DNA damage response. Their defects cause a number of rare diseases which show genetic instability and increased propensity to malignant cell growth. The first of these diseases to be described in this thesis is Fanconi anemia (FA), a rare chromosome instability disorder with recessive inheritance characterized by progressive bone marrow failure, variable congenital malformations, and cancer predisposition. There are at least 13 FA complementation groups (FA-A, B, C, D1, D2, E, F, G, I, J, L, M and N), each representing mutations in a distinct gene. To date, except FANCI all the corresponding genes have been identified, denoted as FANC-A, B, C, D1/BRCA2, D2, E, F, G, J/BRIP1/BACH1, L/PHF9, M/Hef and N/PALB2.Further information is provided in chapters 1 and 2. FA cells are characterized by high sensitivity to DNA crosslinking agents and to elevated oxygen tension, but it is controversial whether they are also radiosensitive. Systematic testing (chapter 3) of primary skin fibroblast cultures from all currently known FA complementation groups revealed no increased sensitivity towards ionizing radiation (IR) and ultra-violet light (UV) when growing cells at physiological (5% v/v) oxygen levels. Despite considerable interstrain variations FA cells showed no systematic differences to cell cultures derived from healthy controls, whereas positive controls (Ataxia telangiectasia and Cockayne syndrome) proved highly sensitive to IR or UV. Lack of radiosensitivity was also shown for the FANCD2 gene, a central gene in the FA/BRCA pathway whose mutational inactivation was studied in a large patient cohort. FA patients excluded previously from complementation groups FA-A, -C, E, F, G or L were screened for mutations in FANCD2. Even though mutation analysis of FANCD2 is complicated by the presence of pseudogene regions, biallelic FANCD2 mutations were identified in a series of 32 patients (chapter 4). The predominant types of mutations result in aberrant splicing causing exon skipping, exonisation of intronic sequence, activation of cryptic and creation of new 3´ splice sites. Many alleles were recurrent and could be associated with ethnicity. Interestingly, residual FANCD2 protein was observed in all available patient cell lines, and functionality was indicated by the presence of the monoubiquitinated FANCD2 isoform. This suggests that viability of FA-D2 patients depends on the presence of hypomorphic or leaky mutations. In chapter 5 the worldwide second FA patient belonging to complementation group FA-L is reported. Genetic analysis of patient derived fibroblasts revealed heterozygosity for a 5-bp deletion (exon 7) and a missense substitution (exon 11). In contrast to the tested fibroblasts two independent lymphoid cell lines proved resistant to the DNA crosslinking agent mitomycin C and showed proficient FANCD2 monoubiquitination. The functional reversion due to a compensating mutation in the splice acceptor site results in aberrant splicing and the restoration of the open reading frame. However, the revertant mosaicsm was restricted to the lymphatic cell lines such that there was no clinical improvement involving the other hematopoietic cell lineages, and bone marrow transplantation was required to treat the patients bone marrow failure. A direct link of Fanconi anemia to other DNA repair processes was provided by the identification of the BRCA1 interacting protein 1, BRIP1/BACH1, as a genuine FA gene (chapter 6). Genetic mapping of consanguineous Inuit families resulted in the identification of truncating mutations in BRIP1. In contrast to most of the other FA patients FANCD2 monoubiquitination was intact, linking these patients to complementation group FA-J. Biallelic mutations in BRIP1 were found in eight additional patients, one of whom was assigned previously to FA-J by somatic cell fusion. Therefore it could be shown that the postulated FANCJ gene is identical with BRIP1. This finding emphasizes the close connection between the BRCA- and the FA-family of genes, both involved in the DNA damage response. Biallelic mutations in BRCA2/FANCD1 cause a severe form of Fanconi anemia with childhood malignancies. Recently, a BRCA2 interacting protein was identified as a “partner and localizer of BRCA2” (PALB2) which confers cellular MMC resistance. A candidate gene approach revealed biallelic mutations in seven FA patients that developed solid tumors in early childhood (chapter 7). Patient cells show no or little PALB2 protein, lack of MMC induced RAD51 foci formation, and high chromosomal instability. Transduction of PALB2 cDNA complemented the MMC sensitive phenotype. Therefore, biallelic mutations in PALB2 cause a new subtype of FA, denoted as FA-N, which is connected with a high and early cancer risk. With respect to one of the most prominent but least understood caretaker gene syndromes, Fanconi anemia, this thesis has expanded our knowledge as follows: 1. refutation of major cellular radiosensitivity of FA cell lines regardless of complementation group, 2. detection of hypomorphic mutations and residual protein levels as a prerequisite for viability of the FANCD2 gene, 3. description of the worldwide second patient belonging to complementation group FA-L whose lymphocytes exhibit a novel type of somatic reversion, 4. participation in the discovery and functional characterization of two novel FA genes (FANCJ and FANCN). The last chapter of the thesis deals with a DNA repair pathway that is activated following exposure to ionizing radation. One of the central proteins responding to radiation-induced DNA damage is the product of the ATM gene which signals to a myriad of other proteins in response to DNA double strand breaks, including the NMR complex. This complex formed by the NBS1/MRE11/RAD50 proteins is thought to act as a specifi c sensor of DNA double-strand breaks. Mutations of MRE11 and NBS1 are associated with the radiation sensitivity syndromes Ataxia-telangiectasia-like disorder (AT-LD) and Nijmegen breakage syndrome (NBS), respectively. Chapter 8 presents the first ever identified patient with RAD50 deficiency due to biallelic germline mutations in the RAD50 gene. An 18-year-old German girl who has a variant form of NBS without immunodeficiency was found to be compound heterozygous for a nonsense mutation and the loss of the natural termination signal in the RAD50 gene. RAD50 protein expression was reduced to less than one tenth of normal in her fibroblasts and lymphoblastoid cells. At the nuclear level, RAD50 deficiency was associated with a high frequency of spontaneous chromatid exchanges and with the failure to form MRE11 and NBS1 nuclear foci in response to irradiation. ATM autophosphorylation, phosphorylation of p53 at serine 15 and the transcriptional induction of p21/WAF1 mRNA were reduced, and there was no evidence for Ser343 phosphorylation of NBS1 in RAD50 defi cient cells following irradiation. These defects could be complemented by expression of wildtype RAD50 cDNA. Our data shows that RAD50 modulates, like NBS1 and MRE11, the ATM-mediated DNA damage response and the G1/S cell cycle checkpoint. In addition, RAD50 appears to be required for nuclear localization of MRE11, and for NBS1 focus formation, underlining its importance for the proper function of the NMR complex. Owing to the studies performed within the framework of this thesis, RAD50 deficiency can now be added to the growing list of human caretaker gene syndromes with pronounced radiosensitivity that is distinctive at both the cellular and the clinical level from deficiencies involving the other members of the NMR complex.