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Eclosion in flies and other insects is a circadian-gated behaviour under control of a central and a peripheral clock. It is not influenced by the motivational state of an animal, and thus presents an ideal paradigm to study the relation and signalling pathways between central and peripheral clocks, and downstream peptidergic regulatory systems. Little is known, however, about eclosion rhythmicity under natural conditions, and research into this direction is hampered by the physically closed design of current eclosion monitoring systems.
We describe a novel open eclosion monitoring system (WEclMon) that allows the puparia to come into direct contact with light, temperature and humidity. We demonstrate that the system can be used both in the laboratory and outdoors, and shows a performance similar to commercial closed funnel-type monitors. Data analysis is semi-automated based on a macro toolset for the open imaging software Fiji. Due to its open design, the WEclMon is also well suited for optogenetic experiments. A small screen to identify putative neuroendocrine signals mediating time from the central clock to initiate eclosion showed that optogenetic activation of ETH-, EH and myosuppressin neurons can induce precocious eclosion. Genetic ablation of myosuppressin-expressing neurons did, however, not affect eclosion rhythmicity.
Visual Attention in Flies-Dopamine in the Mushroom Bodies Mediates the After-Effect of Cueing
(2016)
Visual environments may simultaneously comprise stimuli of different significance. Often such stimuli require incompatible responses. Selective visual attention allows an animal to respond exclusively to the stimuli at a certain location in the visual field. In the process of establishing its focus of attention the animal can be influenced by external cues. Here we characterize the behavioral properties and neural mechanism of cueing in the fly Drosophila melanogaster. A cue can be attractive, repulsive or ineffective depending upon (e.g.) its visual properties and location in the visual field. Dopamine signaling in the brain is required to maintain the effect of cueing once the cue has disappeared. Raising or lowering dopamine at the synapse abolishes this after-effect. Specifically, dopamine is necessary and sufficient in the αβ-lobes of the mushroom bodies. Evidence is provided for an involvement of the αβ\(_{posterior}\) Kenyon cells.
There is such vast amount of visual information in our surroundings at any time that filtering out the important information for further processing is a basic requirement for any visual system. This is accomplished by deploying attention to focus on one source of sensory inputs to the exclusion of others (Luck and Mangun 2009). Attention has been studied extensively in humans and non human primates (NHPs). In Drosophila, visual attention was first demonstrated in 1980 (Wolf and Heisenberg 1980) but this field remained largely unexplored until recently. Lately, however, studies have emerged that hypothesize the role of attention in several behaviors but do not specify the characteristic properties of attention. So, the aim of this research was to characterize the phenomenon of visual attention in wild-type Drosophila, including both externally cued and covert attention using tethered flight at a torque meter. Development of systematic quantifiable behavioral tests was a key aspect for this which was not only important for analyzing the behavior of a population of wild-type flies but also for comparing the wild-type flies with mutant flies. The latter would help understand the molecular, genetic, and neuronal bases of attention. Since Drosophila provides handy genetic tools, a model of attention in Drosophila will serve to the greater questions about the neuronal circuitry and mechanisms involved which might be analogous to those in primates. Such a model might later be used in research involving disorders of attention. Attention can be guided to a certain location in the visual field by the use of external cues. Here, using visual cues the attention of the fly was directed to one or the other of the two visual half-fields. A simple yet robust paradigm was designed with which the results were easily quantifiable. This paradigm helped discover several interesting properties of the cued attention, the most substantial one being that this kind of external guidance of attention is restricted to the lower part of the fly’s visual field. The guiding cue had an after-effect, i.e. it could occur at least up to 2 seconds before the test and still bias it. The cue could also be spatially separated from the test by at least 20° and yet attract the attention although the extent of the focus of attention (FoA) was smaller than one lower visual half-field. These observations excluded the possibility of any kind of interference between the test and the cue stimuli. Another interesting observation was the essentiality of continuous visibility of the test stimulus but not the cue for effective cuing. When the contrast of the visual scene was inverted, differences in response frequencies and cuing effects were observed. Syndirectional yaw torque responses became more frequent than the antidirectional responses and cuing was no longer effective in the lower visual field with inverted contrast. Interestingly, the test stimulus with simultaneous displacement of two stripes not only effectuated a phasic yaw torque response but also a landing response. A 50 landing response was produced in more than half of the cases whenever a yaw torque response was produced. Elucidation of the neuronal correlates of the cued attention was commenced. Pilot experiments with hydroxyurea (HU) treated flies showed that mushroom bodies were not required for the kind of guidance of attention tested in this study. Dopamine mutants were also tested for the guidance of attention in the lower visual field. Surprisingly, TH-Gal4/UAS-shits1 flies flew like wild-type flies and also showed normal optomotor response during the initial calibration phase of the experiment but did not show any phasic yaw torque or landing response at 18 °C, 25 °C or 30 °C. dumb2 flies that have almost no D1 dopamine receptor dDA1 expression in the mushroom bodies and the central complex (Kim et al. 2007) were also tested and like THGal4/ UAS-shits1 flies did not show any phasic yaw torque or landing response. Since the dopamine mutants did not show the basic yaw torque response for the test the role of dopamine in attention could not be deduced. A different paradigm would be needed to test these mutants. Not only can attention be guided through external cues, it can also be shifted endogenously (covert attention). Experiments with the windows having oscillating stripes nicely demonstrated the phenomenon of covert attention due to the production of a characteristic yaw torque pattern by the flies. However, the results were not easily quantifiable and reproducible thereby calling for a more systematic approach. Experiments with simultaneous opposing displacements of two stripes provide a promising avenue as the results from these experiments showed that the flies had a higher tendency to deliver one type of response than when the responses would be produced stochastically suggesting that attention increased this tendency. Further experiments and analysis of such experiments could shed more light on the mechanisms of covert attention in flies.
A visual stimulus at a particular location of the visual field may elicit a behavior while at the same time equally salient stimuli in other parts do not. This property of visual systems is known as selective visual attention (SVA). The animal is said to have a focus of attention (FoA) which it has shifted to a particular location. Visual attention normally involves an attention span at the location to which the FoA has been shifted. Here the attention span is measured in Drosophila. The fly is tethered and hence has its eyes fixed in space. It can shift its FoA internally. This shift is revealed using two simultaneous test stimuli with characteristic responses at their particular locations. In tethered flight a wild type fly keeps its FoA at a certain location for up to 4s. Flies with a mutation in the radish gene, that has been suggested to be involved in attention-like mechanisms, display a reduced attention span of only 1s.
Almost all life forms on earth have adapted to the most impactful and most predictable recurring change in environmental condition, the cycle of day and night, caused by the axial rotation of the planet. As a result many animals have evolved intricate endogenous clocks, which adapt and synchronize the organisms’ physiology, metabolism and behaviour to the daily change in environmental conditions. The scientific field researching these endogenous clocks is called chronobiology and has steadily grown in size, scope and relevance since the works of the earliest pioneers in the 1960s.
The number one model organism for the research of circadian clocks is the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, whose clock serves as the entry point to understanding the basic inner workings of such an intricately constructed endogenous timekeeping system. In this thesis it was attempted to combine the research on the circadian clock with the techniques of optogenetics, a fairly new scientific field, launched by the discovery of Channelrhodopsin 2 just over 15 years ago. Channelrhodopsin 2 is a light-gated ion channel found in the green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. In optogenetics, researches use these light-gated ion channels like Channelrhodopsin 2 by heterologously expressing them in cells and tissues of other organisms, which can then be stimulated by the application of light. This is most useful when studying neurons, as these channels provide an almost non-invasive tool to depolarize the neuronal plasma membranes at will. The goal of this thesis was to develop an optogenetic tool, which would be able to influence and phase shift the circadian clock of Drosophila melanogaster upon illumination. A phase shift is the adaptive response of the circadian clock to an outside stimulus that signals a change in the environmental light cycle. An optogenetic tool, able to influence and phase shift the circadian clock predictably and reliably, would open up many new ways and methods of researching the neuronal network of the clock and which neurons communicate to what extent, ultimately synchronizing the network.
The first optogenetic tool to be tested in the circadian clock of Drosophila melanogaster was ChR2-XXL, a channelrhodopsin variant with dramatically increased expression levels and photocurrents combined with a prolonged open state. The specific expression of ChR2-XXL and of later constructs was facilitated by deploying the three different clock-specific GAL4-driver lines, clk856-gal4, pdf-gal4 and mai179-gal4. Although ChR2-XXL was shown to be highly effective at depolarizing neurons, these stimulations proved to be unable to significantly phase shift the circadian clock of Drosophila. The second series of experiments was conducted with the conceptually novel optogenetic tools Olf-bPAC and SthK-bPAC, which respectively combine a cyclic nucleotide-gated ion channel (Olf and SthK) with the light-activated adenylyl-cyclase bPAC. These tools proved to be quite useful when expressed in the motor neurons of instar-3 larvae of Drosophila, paralyzing the larvae upon illumination, as well as affecting body length. This way, these new tools could be precisely characterized, spawning a successfully published research paper, centered around their electrophysiological characterization and their applicability in model organisms like Drosophila. In the circadian clock however, these tools caused substantial damage, producing severe arrhythmicity and anomalies in neuronal development. Using a temperature-sensitive GAL80-line to delay the expression until after the flies had eclosed, yielded no positive results either. The last series of experiments saw the use of another new series of optogenetic tools, modelled after the Olf-bPAC, with bPAC swapped out for CyclOp, a membrane-bound guanylyl-cyclase, coupled with less potent versions of the Olf. This final attempt however also ended up being unsuccessful. While these tools could efficiently depolarize neuronal membranes upon illumination, they were ultimately unable to stimulate the circadian clock in way that would cause it to phase shift.
Taken together, these mostly negative results indicate that an optogenetic manipulation of the circadian clock of Drosophila melanogaster is an extremely challenging subject. As light already constitutes the most impactful environmental factor on the circadian clock, the combination of chronobiology with optogenetics demands the parameters of the conducted experiments to be tuned with an extremely high degree of precision, if one hopes to receive positive results from these types of experiments at all.
Swords are exaggerated male ornaments of swordtail fishes that have been of great interest to evolutionary biologists ever since Darwin described them in the Descent of Man (1871). They are a novel sexually selected trait derived from modified ventral caudal fin rays and are only found in the genus Xiphophorus. Another phylogenetically more widespread and older male trait is the gonopodium, an intromittent organ found in all poeciliid fishes, that is derived from a modified anal fin. Despite many evolutionary and behavioral studies on both traits, little is known so far about the molecular mechanisms underlying their development. By investigating transcriptomic changes (utilizing a RNA-Seq approach) in response to testosterone treatment in the swordtail fish, Xiphophorus hellerii, we aimed to better understand the architecture of the gene regulatory networks underpinning the development of these two evolutionary novelties. Large numbers of genes with tissue-specific expression patterns were identified. Among the sword genes those involved in embryonic organ development, sexual character development and coloration were highly expressed, while in the gonopodium rather more morphogenesis-related genes were found. Interestingly, many genes and genetic pathways are shared between both developing novel traits derived from median fins: the sword and the gonopodium. Our analyses show that a larger set of gene networks was co-opted during the development and evolution of the older gonopodium than in the younger, and morphologically less complex trait, the sword. We provide a catalog of candidate genes for future efforts to dissect the development of those sexually selected exaggerated male traits in swordtails.
Since the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster entered the laboratories as a model organism, new genetic, physiological, molecular and behavioral techniques for the functional analysis of the brain rapidly accumulated. Nowadays this concerted assault obtains its main thrust form Gal4 expression patterns that can be visualized and provide the means for manipulating -in unrestrained animals- groups of neurons of the brain. To take advantage of these patterns one needs to know their anatomy. This thesis describes the Virtual Insect Brain (VIB) protocol, a software package for the quantitative assessment, comparison, and presentation of neuroanatomical data. It is based on the 3D-reconstruction and visualization software Amira (Mercury Inc.). Its main part is a standardization procedure which aligns individual 3D images (series of virtual sections obtained by confocal microscopy) to a common coordinate system and computes average intensities for each voxel (volume pixel). The VIB protocol facilitates direct comparison of gene expression patterns and describes their interindividual variability. It provides volumetry of brain regions and helps to characterize the phenotypes of brain structure mutants. Using the VIB protocol does not require any programming skills since all operations are carried out at a (near to) self-explanatory graphical user interface. Although the VIB protocol has been developed for the standardization of Drosophila neuroanatomy, the program structure can be used for the standardization of other 3D structures as well. Standardizing brains and gene expression patterns is a new approach to biological shape and its variability. Using the VIB protocol consequently may help to integrate knowledge on the correlation of form and function of the insect brain. The VIB protocol provides a first set of tools supporting this endeavor in Drosophila. The software is freely available at http://www.neurofly.de.
We are living in a system that underlies permanent environmental changes due to the rotation of our planet. These changes are rhythmic with the most prominent one having a period of about 24 hours, but also shorter and longer rhythms characterize our environment. To cope with the ever-changing environmental conditions, it is thought to be beneficial if an organism can track and anticipate these changes. The so called endogenous clocks enable this and might provide a fitness advantage. To investigate and unravel the mechanism of endogenous clocks Chronobiologists have used different model organisms. In this thesis Drosophila melanogaster was used as model organism with its about 150 clock neurons representing the main endogenous clock of the fly in the central brain.
The molecular mechanisms and the interlocked feedback loops with the main circadian key players like period, timeless, clock or cycle are under investigation since the 1970s and are characterized quite well so far. But the impact of a functional endogenous clock in combination with diverse factors and the resulting fitness advantages were analysed in only a few studies and remains for the most part unknown. Therefore the aim of this thesis was to unravel the impact of Drosophila melanogaster`s endogenous clock on the fitness of the fly. To achieve this goal different factors – like day length, humidity and food composition – were analyzed in wild type CS and three different period mutants, namely perL, perS and per01, that carry a point mutation altering or abolishing the free-running period of the fruit fly as well as a second arrhythmic strain, clkAR.
In competition assay experiments wild type and clock mutant flies competed for up to 63 generations under a normal 24 hour rhythm with 12 hours light/day and 12 hours darkness/night (LD12:12) or T-cycles with 19 or 29 hours, according to the mutants free-running period, or constant light (LL) in case of the arrhythmic mutant as well as under natural-like outdoor conditions in two consecutive years. Overall the wild type CS strain was outcompeting the clock mutant strains independent of the environmental conditions. As the perL fly strain elongated their free-running period, the competition experiments were repeated with naturally cantonized new fly strains. With these experiments it could be shown that the genetic background of the fly strains – which are kept for decades in the lab, with backcrosses every few years – is very important and influences the fitness of flies. But also the day length impacts the fitness of the flies, enabling them to persist in higher percentage in a population under competition. Further factors that might influence the survival in a competing population were investigated, like e.g. mating preferences and locomotor activity of homo- and heterozygous females or sperm number of males transferred per mating. But these factors can still not explain the results in total and play no or only minor roles and show the complexity of the whole system with still unknown characteristics.
Furthermore populations of flies were recorded to see if the flies exhibit a common locomotor activity pattern or not and indeed a population activity pattern could be recorded for the first time and social contact as a Zeitgeber could be verified for Drosophila melanogaster.
In addition humidity and its impact on the flies´ fitness as well as a potential Zeitgeber was examined in this thesis. The flies experienced different relative humidities for eclosion and wing expansion and humidity cycle phase shifting experiments were performed to address these two different questions of fitness impact and potential Zeitgeber. The fruit fly usually ecloses in the morning hours when the relative humidity is quite high and the general assumption was that they do so to prevent desiccation. The results of this thesis were quite clear and demonstrate that the relative humidity has no great effect on the fitness of the flies according to successful eclosion or wing expansion and that temperature might be the more important factor. In the humidity cycle phase shifting experiments it could be revealed that relative humidity cannot act as a Zeitgeber for Drosophila melanogaster, but it influences and therefore masks the activity of flies by allowing or surpressing activity at specific relative humidity values.
As final experiments the lifespan of wild type and clock mutant flies was investigated under different day length and with different food qualities to unravel the impact of these factors on the fitness and therefore survival of the flies on the long run. As expected the flies with nutrient-poor minimum medium died earlier than on the nutrient-rich maximum medium, but a small effect of day length could also be seen with flies living slightly longer when they experience environmental day length conditions resembling their free-running period. The experiments also showed a fitness advantage of the wild type fly strain against the clock mutant strains for long term, but not short term (about the first 2-3 weeks).
As a conclusion it can be said that genetic variation is important to be able to adapt to changing environmental conditions and to optimize fitness and therefore survival. Having a functional endogenous clock with a free-running period of about 24 hours provides fitness advantages for the fruit fly, at least under competition. The whole system is very complex and many factors – known and unknown ones – play a role in this system by interacting on different levels, e.g. physiology, metabolism and/or behavior.
An animal depends heavily on its sense of smell and its ability to form olfactory associations as this is crucial for its survival. This thesis studies in two parts about such associative olfactory learning in larval Drosophila. The first part deals with different aspects of odour processing while the second part is concerned with aspects related to memory and learning. Chapter I.1 highlights how odour intensities could be integrated into the olfactory percept of larval Drosophila. I first describe the dose-effect curves of learnability across odour intensities for different odours and then choose odour intensities from these curves such that larvae are trained at intermediate odour intensity, but are tested for retention with either that trained intermediate odour intensity, or with respectively HIGHer or LOWer intensities. I observe a specificity of retention for the trained intensity for all the odours used. Further I compare these findings with the case of adult Drosophila and propose a circuit level model of how such intensity coding comes about. Such intensity specificity of learning adds to appreciate the richness in 'content' of olfactory memory traces, and to define the demands on computational models of olfaction and olfactory learning. Chapter I.2 provides a behaviour-based estimate of odour similarity using four different types of experiments to yield a combined, task-independent estimate of perceived difference between odour-pairs. Further comparison of these perceived differences to published measures of physico- chemical difference reveals a weak correlation. Notable exceptions to this correlation are 3-octanol and benzaldehyde. Chapter I.3 shows for two odours (3-octanol and 1-octene-3-ol) that perceptual differences between these odours can either be ignored after non-discriminative training (generalization), or accentuated by odour-specific reinforcement (discrimination). Anosmic Or83b1 mutants have lost these faculties, indicating that this adaptive adjustment is taking place downstream of Or83b expressing sensory neurons. Chapter II.1 of this thesis deals with food supplementation with dried roots of Rhodiola rosea. This dose-dependently improves odour- reward associative function in larval Drosophila. Supplementing fly food with commercially available tablets or extracts, however, does not have a 'cognitive enhancing' effect, potentially enabling us to differentiate between the effective substances in the root versus these preparations. Thus Drosophila as a genetically tractable study case should now allow accelerated analyses of the molecular mechanism(s) that underlie this 'cognitive enhancement' conveyed by Rhodiola rosea. Chapter II.2 describes the role of Synapsin, an evolutionarily conserved presynaptic phosphoprotein using a combined behavioural and genetic approach and asks where and how, this protein affects functions in associative plasticity of larval Drosophila. This study shows that a Synapsin-dependent memory trace can be pinpointed to the mushroom bodies, a 'cortical' brain region of the insects. On the molecular level, data in this study assign Synapsin as a behaviourally- relevant effector of the AC-cAMP-PKA cascade.
All living organisms need timekeeping mechanisms to track and anticipate cyclic changes in their environment. The ability to prepare for and respond to daily and seasonal changes is endowed by circadian clocks. The systemic features and molecular mechanisms that drive circadian rhythmicity are highly conserved across kingdoms. Therefore, Drosophila melanogaster with its relatively small brain (ca. 135.000 neurons) and the outstanding genetic tools that are available, is a perfect model to investigate the properties and relevance of the circadian system in a complex, but yet comprehensible organism.
The last 50 years of chronobiological research in the fruit fly resulted in a deep understanding of the molecular machinery that drives circadian rhythmicity, and various histological studies revealed the neural substrate of the circadian system. However, a detailed neuroanatomical and physiological description on the single-cell level has still to be acquired. Thus, I employed a multicolor labeling approach to characterize the clock network of Drosophila melanogaster with single-cell resolution and additionally investigated the putative in- and output sites of selected neurons.
To further study the functional hierarchy within the clock network and to monitor the “ticking clock“ over the course of several circadian cycles, I established a method, which allows us to follow the accumulation and degradation of the core clock genes in living brain explants by the means of bioluminescence imaging of single-cells.