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In a variety of established tumour cell lines, but also in primary mammary epithelial cells metalloprotease-dependent transactivation of the EGFR, and EGFR characteristic downstream signalling events were observed in response to stimulation with physiological concentrations of GPCR agonists such as the mitogens LPA and S1P as well as therapeutically relevant concentrations of cannabinoids. Moreover, this study reveals ADAM17 and HB-EGF as the main effectors of this mechanism in most of the cancer cell lines investigated. However, depending on the cellular context and GPCR agonist, various different members of the ADAM family are selectively recruited for specific ectodomain shedding of proAR and/or proHB-EGF and subsequent EGFR activation. Furthermore, biological responses induced by LPA or S1P such as migration in breast cancer and HNSCC cells, depend on ADAM17 and proHB-EGF/proAR function, respectively, suggesting that highly abundant GPCR ligands may play a role in tumour development and progression. Moreover, EGFR signal transactivation could be identified as the mechanistic link between cannabinoid receptors and the activation of mitogen activated protein kinases (MAPK) ERK1/2 as well as pro-survival Akt/PKB signalling. Depending on the cellular context, cannabinoid-induced signal cross-communication was mediated by shedding of proAmphiregulin and/or proHB-EGF by ADAM17. Most importantly, our data show that concentrations of THC comparable to those detected in the serum of patients after THC administration accelerate proliferation of cancer cells instead of apoptosis and thereby may contribute to cancer progression in patients.
Characterisation of Metalloprotease-mediated EGFR Signal Transactivation after GPCR Stimulation
(2011)
In the context of metalloprotease-mediated transactivation of the epidermal growth factor receptor, different monoclonal antibodies against ADAM17 / TACE were characterized for their ability to block the sheddase. Activity of some of them was observed at doses between 2µg/mL and 10µg/mL. Kinetic analyses showed their activity starting at around 30 minutes. In cellular assays performed with the antibodies, especially upon treatment of cells with sphingosine-1-phosphate a reduction in proliferation was observed with some candidates. Moreover this study provides potential new roles for ß-Arrestins. Their involvement in the triple membrane-passing signal pathway of EGFR transactivation was shown. Furthermore, in overexpressing cellular model systems, an interaction between ADAM17 and ß-Arrestin1 could be observed. Detailed analysis discovered that phosphorylation of ß-Arrestin1 is crucial for this interaction. Additionally, the novel mechanism of UV-induced EGFR transactivation was extended to squamous cell carcinoma. The mechanism happens in a dose dependent manner and requires a metalloprotease to shed the proligand Amphiregulin. The involvement of both ADAM9 and ADAM17, being the metalloproteases responsible for this cleavage, was shown for SCC9 cells.
The second messenger cyclic AMP (cAMP) plays an important role in synaptic plasticity. Although there is evidence for local control of synaptic transmission and plasticity, it is less clear whether a similar spatial confinement of cAMP signaling exists. Here, we suggest a possible biophysical basis for the site-specific regulation of synaptic plasticity by cAMP, a highly diffusible small molecule that transforms the physiology of synapses in a local and specific manner. By exploiting the octopaminergic system of Drosophila, which mediates structural synaptic plasticity via a cAMP-dependent pathway, we demonstrate the existence of local cAMP signaling compartments of micrometer dimensions within single motor neurons. In addition, we provide evidence that heterogeneous octopamine receptor localization, coupled with local differences in phosphodiesterase activity, underlies the observed differences in cAMP signaling in the axon, cell body, and boutons.
During my PhD I studied two principal biological aspects employing Drosophila melanogaster. Therefore, this study is divided into Part I and II.
Part I: Bruchpilot and Complexin interact to regulate synaptic vesicle tethering to the
active zone cytomatrix
At the presynaptic active zone (AZ) synaptic vesicles (SVs) are often physically linked to an electron-dense cytomatrix – a process referred to as “SV tethering”. This process serves to concentrate SVs in close proximity to their release sites before contacting the SNARE complex for subsequent fusion (Hallermann and Silver, 2013). In Drosophila, the AZ protein Bruchpilot (BRP) is part of the proteinous cytomatrix at which SVs accumulate (Kittel et al., 2006b; Wagh et al., 2006; Fouquet et al., 2009). Intriguingly, truncation of only 1% of the C-terminal region of BRP results in a severe defect in SV tethering to this AZ scaffold (hence named brpnude; Hallermann et al., 2010b).
Consistent with these findings, cell-specific overexpression of a C-terminal BRP fragment, named mBRPC-tip (corresponds to 1% absent in brpnude; m = mobile) phenocopied the brpnude mutant in behavioral and functional experiments. These data indicate that mBRPC-tip suffices to saturate putative SV binding sites, which induced a functional tethering deficit at motoneuronal AZs. However, the molecular identity of the BRP complement to tether SVs to the presynaptic AZ scaffold remains unknown. Moreover, within larval motoneurons membrane-attached C-terminal portions of BRP were sufficient to tether SVs to sites outside of the AZ. Based on this finding a genetic screen was designed to identify BRP interactors in vivo. This screen identified Complexin (CPX), which is known to inhibit spontaneous SV fusion and to enhance stimulus evoked SV release (Huntwork and Littleton, 2007; Cho et al., 2010; Martin et al., 2011). However, so far CPX has not been associated with a function upstream of priming/docking and release of SVs. This work provides morphological and functional evidence, which suggests that CPX promotes recruitment of SVs to the AZ and thereby curtails synaptic short-term depression. Together, the presented findings indicate a functional interaction between BRP and CPX at Drosophila AZs.
Part II: The Adhesion-GPCR Latrophilin/CIRL shapes mechanosensation
The calcium independent receptor of α-latrotoxin (CIRL), also named Latrophilin, represents a prototypic Adhesion class G-protein coupled-receptor (aGPCR). Initially, Latrophilin was identified based on its capacity to bind the α-component of latrotoxin (α-LTX; Davletov et al., 1996; Krasnoperov et al., 1996), which triggers massive exocytotic activity from neurons of the peripheral nervous system (Scheer et al., 1984; Umbach et al., 1998; Orlova et al., 2000). As a result Latrophilin is considered to play a role in synaptic transmission. Later on, Latrophilins have been associated with other biological processes including tissue polarity (Langenhan et al., 2009), fertility (Prömel et al., 2012) and synaptogenesis (Silva et al., 2011). However, thus far its subcellular localization and the identity of endogenous ligands, two aspects crucial for the comprehension of Latrophilin’s in vivo function, remain enigmatic.
Drosophila contains only one latrophilin homolog, named dCirl, whose function has not been investigated thus far.
This study demonstrates abundant dCirl expression throughout the nervous system of Drosophila larvae. dCirlKO animals are viable and display no defects in development and neuronal differentiation. However, dCirl appears to influence the dimension of the postsynaptic sub-synaptic reticulum (SSR), which was accompanied by an increase in the postsynaptic Discs-large abundance (DLG). In contrast, morphological and functional properties of presynaptic motoneurons were not compromised by the removal of dCirl. Instead, dCirl is required for the perception of mechanical challenges (acoustic-, tactile- and proprioceptive stimuli) through specialized mechanosensory devices, chordotonal organs (Eberl, 1999). The data indicate that dCirl modulates the sensitivity of chordotonal neurons towards mechanical stimulation and thereby adjusts their input-output relation. Genetic interaction analyses suggest that adaption of the molecular mechanotransduction machinery by dCirl may underlie this process. Together, these results uncover an unexpected function of Latrophilin/dCIRL in mechanosensation and imply general modulatory roles of aGPCR in mechanoception.
G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are the major group of cell-surface receptors that transmit extracellular signals via classical, G protein-dependent pathways into the cell. Although GPCRs were long assumed to signal exclusively from the cell-surface, recent investigations have demonstrated a possibly completely new paradigm. In this new view, GPCR continues signaling via 3´,5´-cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) after their agonist-induced internalization of ligand/receptor complexes into an intracellular compartment, causing persistent cAMP elevation and apparently specific signaling outcomes. The thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) receptor is one of the first GPCRs, which has been reported to show persistent signaling after ligand removal (Calebiro et al., 2009). In the meantime, signaling by internalized GPCR become a highly investigated topic and has been shown for several GPCRs, including the parathyroid hormone receptor (Ferrandon et al., 2009), D1 dopamine receptor (Kotowski et al., 2011) and beta2-adrenergic receptor (Irannejad et al., 2013). A recent study on the beta2-adrenergic receptor revealed that internalized receptor not only participates in cAMP signaling, but is also involved in gene transcription (Tsvetanova and von Zastrow, 2014). However, a biological effect of GPCR signaling at intracellular sites, which would demonstrate its physiological relevance, still remained to be shown.
To investigate GPCR signaling from intracellular compartment under physiological condition, two different cellular models were utilized in the present study: intact ovarian follicles expressing luteinizing hormone (LH) receptors and primary thyroid cells expressing TSH receptors.
Intact ovarian follicles were obtained from a transgenic mouse expressing, a Förster/Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) sensor for cAMP to monitor cAMP/LH receptor signaling. This study provides the first accurate spatiotemporal characterization of cAMP signaling, which is derived from different cell layers of an intact ovarian follicle. Additionally, it could be shown that cAMP diffusion via gap junctions is implicated in spreading the LH-induced cAMP signals from one the outermost (mural granulosa) to the innermost (cumulus oophorus) cell layer of an ovarian follicle. Interestingly, LH receptor stimulation was associated with persistent cAMP signaling after LH removal and negligible desensitization of the cAMP signal. Interfering with receptor internalization with a dynamin inhibitor dynasore did not only prevent persistent LH-induced cAMP signaling, but also impaired the resumption of meiosis in follicle-enclosed oocytes, a key biological effect of LH.
In order to investigate the downstream activation of protein kinase A (PKA) in primary thyroid cells, FRET sensors with different subcellular localization (plasma membrane, cytosol and nucleus) were transiently transfected into primary thyroid cells of wild-type mice via electroporation. Interestingly, TSH stimulation causes at least two distinct phases of PKA activation in the global primary thyroid cell, which are temporally separated by approximately 2 min. In addition, PKA activation in different subcellular compartments are characterized by dissimilar kinetics and amplitudes. Pharmacological inhibition of TSH receptor internalization largely prevented the second (i.e. late) phase of PKA activation as well as the subsequent TSH-dependent phosphorylation of CREB and TSH-dependent induction of early genes. These results suggest that PKA activation and nuclear signaling require internalization of the TSH receptor.
Taken together, the data of the present study provide strong evidence that GPCR signaling at intracellular sites is distinct from the one occurring at the cell-surface and is highly physiologically relevant.
While life expectancy increases worldwide, treatment of neurodegenerative diseases such as AD becomes a major task for industrial and academic research. Currently, a treatment of AD is only symptomatical and limited to an early stage of the disease by inhibiting AChE. A cure for AD might even seem far away. A rethinking of other possible targets is therefore necessary. Addressing targets that can influence AD even at later stages might be the key. Even if it is not possible to find a cure for AD, it is of great value for AD patients by providing an effective medication. The suffering of patients and their families might be relieved and remaining years may be spent with less symptoms and restrictions.
It was shown that a combination of hCB2R agonist and BChE inhibitor might exactly be a promising approach to combat AD. In the previous chapters, a first investigation of dual-acting compounds that address both hCB2R and BChE was illustrated (figure 6.1).
A set of over 30 compounds was obtained by applying SARs from BChE inhibitors to a hCB2R
selective agonist developed by AstraZeneca. In a first in vitro evaluation compounds showed
selectivity over hCB1R and AChE. Further investigations could also prove agonism and showed
that unwanted off-target affinity to hMOP receptor could be designed out. The development of
a homology model for hCB2R (based on a novel hCB1R crystal) could further elucidate the
mode of action of the ligand binding. Lastly, first in vivo studies showed a beneficial effect of
selected dual-acting compounds regarding memory and cognition.
Since these first in vivo studies mainly aim for an inhibition of the BChE, it should be the aim
of upcoming projects to proof the relevance of hCB2R agonism in vivo as well. In addition,
pharmacokinetic as well as solubility studies may help to complete the overall picture.
Currently, hybrid-based dual-acting hCB2R agonists and selective BChE inhibitors are under
investigation in our lab. First in vitro evaluations showed improved BChE inhibition and
selectivity over AChE compared to tacrine.78 Future in vitro and in vivo studies will clarify their
usage as drug molecules with regard to hepatotoxicity and blood-brain barrier penetration.
Since the role of hCB2R is not yet completely elucidated, the use of photochromic toolcompounds
becomes an area of interest. These tool-compounds (and their biological effect) can
be triggered upon irradiation with light and thus help to investigate time scales and ligand
binding.
A set of 5-azobenzene benzimidazoles was developed and synthesized. In radioligand binding
studies, affinity towards hCB2R could be increased upon irradiation with UV-light (figure 6.2).
This makes the investigated compounds the first GPCR ligands that can be activated upon
irradiation (not vice versa).
The aim of upcoming research will be the triggering of a certain intrinsic activity by an
“efficacy-switch”. For this purpose, several attempts are currently under investigation: an
introduction of an azobenzene moiety at the 2-position of the benzimidazole core already led to
a slight difference in efficacy upon irradiation with UV light. Another approach going on in our
lab is the development of hCB1R switches based on the selective hCB1R inverse agonist
rimonabant. First in vitro results are not yet available (figure 6.3).
Whereas G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) have been long believed to signal through cyclic AMP exclusively at cell surface, our group has previously shown that GPCRs not only signal at the cell surface but can also continue doing so once internalized together with their ligands, leading to persistent cAMP production. This phenomenon, which we originally described for the thyroid stimulating hormone receptor (TSHR) in thyroid cells, has been observed also for other GPCRs. However, the intracellular compartment(s) responsible for such persistent signaling and its consequences on downstream effectors were insufficiently characterized. The aim of this study was to follow by live-cell imaging the trafficking of internalized TSHRs and other involved signaling proteins as well as to understand the consequences of signaling by internalized TSHRs on the downstream activation of protein kinase A (PKA). cAMP and PKA
activity was measured in real-time in living thyroid cells using FRET-based sensors Epac1-camp and AKAR2 respectively. The results suggest that TSH co-internalizes with its receptor and that the internalized TSH/TSHR complexes traffic retrogradely to the trans-Golgi network (TGN). This study also provides evidence that these internalized TSH/TSHR complexes meet an intracellular pool of Gs proteins in sorting endosomes and in TGN and activate it there, as visualized in real-time using a conformational biosensor nanobody, Nb37. Acute Brefeldin A-induced Golgi collapse hinders the retrograde trafficking of TSH/TSHR complexes, leading to reduced cAMP production and PKA signaling. BFA pretreatment was also able to attenuate CREB phosphorylation suggesting that an intact Golgi/TGN organisation is essential
for an efficient cAMP/PKA signaling by internalized TSH/TSHR complexes. Taken together this data provides evidence that internalized TSH/TSHR complexes meet and activate Gs proteins in sorting endosomes and at the TGN, leading to a local activation of PKA and consequently increased CREB activation. These findings suggest unexpected functions for receptor internalization, with major pathophysiological and pharmacological implications.
Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), the ubiquitous second messenger produced upon stimulation of GPCRs which couple to the stimulatory GS protein, orchestrates an array of physiological processes including cardiac function, neuronal plasticity, immune responses, cellular proliferation and apoptosis. By interacting with various effector proteins, among others protein kinase A (PKA) and exchange proteins directly activated by cAMP (Epac), it triggers signaling cascades for the cellular response. Although the functional outcomes of GSPCR-activation are very diverse depending on the extracellular stimulus, they are all mediated exclusively by this single second messenger. Thus, the question arises how specificity in such responses may be attained. A hypothesis to explain signaling specificity is that cellular signaling architecture, and thus precise operation of cAMP in space and time would appear to be essential to achieve signaling specificity. Compartments with elevated cAMP levels would allow specific signal relay from receptors to effectors within a micro- or nanometer range, setting the molecular basis for signaling specificity. Although the paradigm of signaling compartmentation gains continuous recognition and is thoroughly being investigated, the molecular composition of such compartments and how they are maintained remains to be elucidated. In addition, such compartments would require very restricted diffusion of cAMP, but all direct measurements have indicated that it can diffuse in cells almost freely.
In this work, we present the identification and characterize of a cAMP signaling compartment at a GSPCR. We created a Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET)-based receptor-sensor conjugate, allowing us to study cAMP dynamics in direct vicinity of the human glucagone-like peptide 1 receptor (hGLP1R). Additional targeting of analogous sensors to the plasma membrane and the cytosol enables assessment of cAMP dynamics in different subcellular regions. We compare both basal and stimulated cAMP levels and study cAMP crosstalk of different receptors. With the design of novel receptor nanorulers up to 60nm in length, which allow mapping cAMP levels in nanometer distance from the hGLP1R, we identify a cAMP nanodomain surrounding it. Further, we show that phosphodiesterases (PDEs), the only enzymes known to degrade cAMP, are decisive in constraining cAMP diffusion into the cytosol thereby maintaining a cAMP gradient. Following the discovery of this nanodomain, we sought to investigate whether downstream effectors such as PKA are present and active within the domain, additionally studying the role of A-kinase anchoring proteins (AKAPs) in targeting PKA to the receptor compartment. We demonstrate that GLP1-produced cAMP signals translate into local nanodomain-restricted PKA phosphorylation and determine that AKAP-tethering is essential for nanodomain PKA.
Taken together, our results provide evidence for the existence of a dynamic, receptor associated cAMP nanodomain and give prospect for which key proteins are likely to be involved in its formation. These conditions would allow cAMP to exert its function in a spatially and temporally restricted manner, setting the basis for a cell to achieve signaling specificity. Understanding the molecular mechanism of cAMP signaling would allow modulation and thus regulation of GPCR signaling, taking advantage of it for pharmacological treatment.
G-protein- coupled receptors (GPCRs) are the largest family of membrane confined receptors and they transduce ligand binding to downstream effects. Almost 40% of the drugs in the world target GPCRs due to their function, albeit knowing less about their activation. Understanding their dynamic behaviour in basal and activated state could prove key to drug development in the future. GPCRs are known to exhibit complex molecular mobility patterns. A plethora of studies have been and are being conducted to understand the mobility of GPCRs. Due to limitations of imaging and spectroscopic techniques commonly used, the relevant timescales are hard to access. The most commonly used techniques are electron paramagnetic resonance or double electronelectron resonance, nuclear magnetic resonance, time-resolved fluorescence, single particle tracking and fluorescence recovery after photobleaching. Among these techniques only fluorescence has the potential to probe live cells. In this thesis, I use different time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopic techniques to quantify diffusion dynamics / molecular mobility of β2-adrenergic receptor (β2-AR) in live cells. The thesis shows that β2-AR exhibits mobility over an exceptionally broad temporal range (nanosecond to second) that can be linked to its respective physiological scenario. I explain how β2-AR possesses surprisingly fast lateral mobility (~10 μm²/s) associated with vesicular transport in contrast to the prior reports of it originating from fluorophore photophysics and free fluorophores in the cytosol. In addition, β2-AR has rotational mobility (~100 μs) that makes it conform to the Saffman-Delbrück model of membrane diffusion unlike earlier studies. These contrasts are due to the limitations of the methodologies used. The limitations are overcome in this thesis by using different time-resolved fluorescence techniques of fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS), time-resolved anisotropy (TRA) and polarisation resolved fullFCS (fullFCS). FCS is limited to microsecond to the second range and TRA is limited to the nanosecond range. fullFCS complements the two techniques by covering the blind spot of FCS and TRA in the microsecond range. Finally, I show how ligand stimulation causes a decrease in lateral mobility which could be a hint at cluster formation due to internalisation and how β2-AR possesses a basal oligomerisation that does not change on activation. Thus, through this thesis, I show how different complementary fluorescence techniques are necessary to overcome limitations of each technique and to thereby elucidate functional dynamics of GPCR activation and how it orchestrates downstream signalling.
In the heart the β\(_1\)-adrenergic receptor (AR) and the β\(_2\)-AR, two prototypical G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), are both activated by the same hormones, namely adrenaline and noradrenaline. Both receptors couple to stimulatory G\(_s\) proteins, mediate an increase in cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) and influence the contractility and frequency of the heart upon stimulation. However, activation of the β\(_1\)-AR, not the β\(_2\)-AR, lead to other additional effects, such as changes in gene transcription resulting in cardiac hypertrophy, leading to speculations on how distinct effects can arise from receptors coupled to the same downstream signaling pathway.
In this thesis the question of whether this distinct behavior may originate from a differential localization of these two receptors in adult cardiomyocytes is addressed. Therefore, fluorescence spectroscopy tools are developed and implemented in order to elucidate the presence and dynamics of these endogenous receptors at the outer plasma membrane as well as on the T-tubular network of intact adult cardiomyocytes. This allows the visualization of confined localization and diffusion of the β\(_2\)-AR to the T-tubular network at endogenous expression. In contrast, the β\(_1\)-AR is found diffusing at both the outer plasma membrane and the T-tubules. Upon overexpression of the β\(_2\)-AR in adult transgenic cardiomyocytes, the receptors experience a loss of this compartmentalization and are also found at the cell surface. These data suggest that distinct signaling and functional effects can be controlled by specific cell surface targeting of the receptor subtypes.
The tools at the basis of this thesis work are a fluorescent adrenergic antagonist in combination of fluorescence fluctuation spectroscopy to monitor the localization and dynamics of the lowly expressed adrenergic receptors. Along the way to optimizing these approaches, I worked on combining widefield and confocal imaging in one setup, as well as implementing a stable autofocus mechanism using electrically tunable lenses.