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Regulatory T cells (Treg) are critical immune cells to ensure immune homeostasis. Treg do so by establishing tolerance to self-antigens as well as food-derived antigens. Additionally, they fine-tune immune responses to limit the damage caused by inevitable inflammation during the resolution of an ongoing infection or anti-tumor response. Despite countless efforts to gain a detailed understanding of the mechanisms Treg utilize to regulate adaptive immune responses, in vivo evidence is rather limited. We were interested in the cell-cell interactions of Treg and their spatio-temporal dynamics during a viral infection. We sought to address Interleukin-2 (IL-2) competition as a viable mechanism to control anti-viral CD8 T cell responses. We used intra-vital 2-photon imaging to analyze the interactions between Treg and activated T cells during viral infection. Additionally, we performed multiple loss- and gain-of-function experiments, addressing the IL-2 active signaling of CD8, CD4, and regulatory T cells to understand the competitive sensing of IL-2. Finally, we performed single-cell RNA sequencing to understand the cell-intrinsic differences in Treg caused by infection. We found that IL-2 competition by Treg limits the CD8 T cell response and can alter the differentiation of CD8 T cells. Furthermore, we show that Treg do not arrest in proximity to CD8 T cells for prolonged periods and therefore are unlikely to regulate CD8 T cells via contact-dependent mechanisms previously proposed. Our data support an area control model in which Treg scavenge IL-2 while actively migrating through the LN, constantly limiting access to IL-2. Establishing CD4 T cells as the major source of IL-2 during the later phases of infection, we provide direct evidence that Treg compete with CD8 T cells for CD4-derived IL-2. Finally, we show that IL-2 limitation is in correlation with CD25 expression levels and has an impact on the differentiation of CD8 T cells. Altering the differentiation of CD8 T cells to increase effector or memory functions has huge implications in clinical treatments, e.g ’checkpoint immunotherapy’. Especially in scenarios like checkpoint immunotherapy, where an efficient expansion of CD8 T cells is vital to the success of the treatment, it is invaluable to understand the spatio-temporal dynamics of Treg. Not only can the expansion phase be optimized, but also side effects can be better controlled by ensuring the adequate timing of treatments and boosting the anti-inflammatory response after the initial establishment of CD8 T cells. On top of this, the gained understanding of the regulatory mechanism of Treg can help to enhance the efficacy of autoimmune disorder treatments. Overall, this study addressed highly relevant questions in the Treg field and answered aspects of Treg regulation, refining their mode of action and the spatio-temporal dynamics during viral infection, providing evidence for IL-2 competition as a major regulatory mechanism controlling antiviral CD8 T cell responses.
The immune system has the function to defend organisms against a variety of pathogens
and malignancies. To perform this task, different parts of the immune system work in concert and
influence each other to balance and optimize its functional output upon activation. One aspect that
determines this output and ultimately the outcome of the infection is the tissue context in which the
activation takes place. As such, it has been shown that dendritic cells can relay information from
the infection sites to draining lymph nodes. This way, the ensuing adaptive immune response that
is initiated by dendritic cells, is optimized to the tissue context in which the infection needs to be
cleared.
Here, we set out to investigate whether unconventional T cells (UTC) could have a similar
function in directing a site-specific immune response. Using flow cytometry, scRNA-sequencing
and functional assays we demonstrated that UTC indeed drive a characteristic immune response
in lymph nodes depending on the drained tissues. This function of UTC was directly connected to
their lymphatic migration from tissues to draining lymph nodes reminiscent of dendritic cells.
Besides these tissue-derived UTC that migrated via the lymph, we further identified circulatory UTC
that migrated between lymph nodes via the blood. Functional characterization of UTC following
bacterial infection in wt and single TCR-based lineage deficient mice that lacked subgroups of UTC
further revealed that both tissue-derived and circulatory UTC were organized in functional units
independent of their TCR-based lineage-affiliation (MAIT, NKT, gd T cells). Specific reporter mouse
models revealed that UTC within the same functional unit were also located in the same
microanatomical areas of lymph nodes, further supporting their shared function. Our data show that
the numbers and function of UTC were compensated in single TCR-based lineage deficient mice
that lacked subgroups of UTC.
Taken together, our results characterize the transcriptional landscape and migrational
behavior of UTC in different lymph nodes. UTC contribute to a functional heterogeneity of lymph
nodes, which in turn guides optimized, site-specific immune responses. Additionally, we propose
the classification of UTC within functional units independent of their TCR-based lineage. These
results add significantly to our understanding of UTC biology and have direct clinical implications.
We hope that our data will guide targeted vaccination approaches and cell-based therapies to
optimize immune responses against pathogens and cancer.