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Hereditary spastic paraplegias (HSPs) are genetically-determined, neurodegenerative disorders characterized by progressive weakness and spasticity of the lower limbs. Spastic paraplegia type 11 (SPG11) is a complicated form of HSP, which is caused by mutations in the SPG11 gene encoding spatacsin, a protein possibly involved in lysosomal reformation. Based on our previous studies demonstrating that secondary neuroinflammation can be a robust amplifier of various genetically-mediated diseases of both the central and peripheral nervous system, we here test the possibility that neuroinflammation may modify the disease outcome also in a mouse model for SPG11. Spg11-knockout (Spg11-/-) mice develop early walking pattern and behavioral abnormalities, at least partially reflecting motor, and behavioral changes typical for patients. Furthermore, we detected a progressive increase in axonal damage and axonal spheroid formation in the white and grey matter compartments of the central nervous system of Spg11-/- mice. This was accompanied by a concomitant substantial increase of secondary inflammation by cytotoxic CD8+ and CD4+ T-lymphocytes. We here provide evidence that disease-related changes can be ameliorated/delayed by the genetic deletion of the adaptive immune system. Accordingly, we provide evidence that repurposing clinically approved immunomodulators (fingolimod/FTY720 or teriflunomide), that are in use for treatment of multiple sclerosis (MS), also improve disease symptoms in mice, when administered in an early (before neural damage) or late (after/during neural damage) treatment regime.
This work provides strong evidence that immunomodulation can be a therapeutic option for the still untreatable SPG11, including its typical neuropsychological features. This poses the question if inflammation is not only a disease amplifier in SPG11 but can act as a unifying factor also for other genetically mediated disorders of the CNS. If true, this may pave the way to therapeutic options in a wide range of still untreatable, primarily genetic, neurological disorders by repurposing approved immunomodulators.
In this thesis, three species were investigated for the conservation of two non-conventional T cell systems, the CD1d/ iNKT cell system and the BTN3/ Vγ9Vδ2 T cell system. Non-conventional T cells are αβ or γδ T cells that do not fit into the classical mode of antigen recognition and adaptive responses. These T cells recognize antigens different from classical peptide antigens and are not restricted to the polymorphic MHC molecules but rather to non-polymorphic antigen-presenting molecules. The iNKT cell subset is restricted by the lipid antigen-presenting molecule CD1d and carries out immunomodulatory functions by rapid cytokine secretion. The molecular basis of this system, the semi-invariant iNKT TCR chains and CD1d were proven to be expressed and compared to homologs in human and rodents. Cotton rats possess multiple members of the AV14 and BV8 family and only one isoform of CD1d which is comparable to findings in the rat.
Moreover, the reactivity of primary cells to glycolipid antigens could be shown, and an iNKT
cell-like population was detected in primary cells using newly developed cotton rat CD1d oligomers. These were also applied to test the capacity of CD1d to present typical glycolipid
antigens to iNKT TCR transductants. In addition, expression of cotton rat iNKT TCR α and β chains in TCR-negative cell lines was used to show successful pairing and detection of glycolipids in the context of CD1d. In summary, the conservation of a functional CD1d/iNKT cell system in the cotton rat could be shown, and tools were developed to study this cell subset in the course of infectious diseases. The Vγ9Vδ2 T cell subset is the major γδ T cell subset in human peripheral blood and has the unique ability to contribute to immune surveillance by detecting pyrophosphorylated metabolites of isoprenoid synthesis that indicate cell stress, transformation or infection. Up to this date, phosphoantigen-reactive γδ T cells have only been shown in primate species. However, evidence for the existence and functional conservation of the genes implied in the BTN3/Vγ9Vδ2 T cell system was found in several placental mammal species,
and two candidate species were chosen for further investigation. The nine-banded armadillo, a valuable model for leprosy research, was shown to possess homologous genes to TRGV9, TRDV2 and BTN3. In this study, the expression of productive rearrangements of TRDV2 gene segments could be shown in peripheral blood samples, but no evidence was found for the expression of a functional TRGV9 rearrangement or BTN3 molecules. Moreover, determinants of phosphoantigen-reactive Vγ9Vδ2 T cells and functional BTN3 molecules were found to still be prevalent in armadillo genes. This makes the armadillo an interesting model to study the structural determinants that allow phosphoantigen recognition by a functional Vγ9Vδ2 T cell subset although this species is merely a witness for a functional system in a placental mammal ancestor. In contrast, alpacas were shown to express functional Vγ9Vδ2 T cells which conserved many features of the human counterpart. Expression of Vγ9Vδ2 pairings could be shown by single-cell PCR and functional phosphoantigenreactive pairings were observed. This phosphoantigen reactivity was also shown in PBMC cultures with a newly developed antibody specific for alpaca Vδ2Jδ4 chains. Moreover, a more detailed study of the alpaca TCR repertoire showed similarities to “γδ high” species like
camelids and cattle which possess an extended family of TRDV genes. The γ and δ loci of alpaca
TCR genes were drafted based on genomic information and cDNA studies and provide an overview for more detailed studies. Conservation of phosphoantigen recognition by the single BTN3 molecule of alpacas was shown in 293T knock out cell lines, and BTN3 detection on PBMCs was investigated with a newly developed alpaca BTN3-specific antibody. These findings prove the existence of a functional BTN3-dependent phosphoantigen-reactive Vγ9Vδ2 T cell subset and provide a basis for the future study of this cell system in a non-primate species. Moreover, as the first non-primate candidate species with the BTN3/Vγ9Vδ2 T cell system the alpaca is an important outgroup for research in this field. The use of a single BTN3 variant in contrast to three human isoforms that work together renders the alpaca a unique and to this date indispensable model for Vγ9Vδ2 T cells.
In conclusion, this study provides an overview of the applicability of new animal models in the
study of the non-conventional T cell subsets iNKT cells and Vγ9Vδ2 T cells and leads the way for a better understanding of structural and functional relationships.
Human Vγ9Vδ2 T cells are the main γδ T cell subset in the circulation, accounting for up to 5% of the total peripheral blood lymphocyte population. They have been suggested to be important in response to tumors and infections. Their immune mechanisms encompass cell killing via cytotoxicity and secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IFNγ and tumor necrosis factor (TNF). The main stimulators of Vγ9Vδ2 T cells are isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP) and (E)-4-hydroxy-3-methyl-but-2-enyl pyrophosphate (HMBPP), denominated phosphoantigens (PAg).
A major advance in the understanding of PAg detection and Vγ9Vδ2 T cell activation has been the identification of the butyrophlin 3A (BTN3A) proteins as key mediators in these processes. In humans, three isoforms constitute the BTN3A family: BTN3A1, BTN3A2, and BTN3A3; and their genes are localized on the short arm of chromosome 6. The role of BTN3A1 has been highlighted by BTN3A-specific monoclonal antibody 20.1 (mAb 20.1), which has an agonist effect and causes proliferation, expansion, and activation of primary human Vγ9Vδ2 T cells. On the other hand, BTN3A-specific monoclonal antibody 103.2 (mAb 103.2) is antagonistic, inhibiting the Vγ9Vδ2 T cell response. The actual mechanism underlying both PAg- and mAb 20.1-mediated activation is not completely elucidated, but the importance of BTN3A1 is clear.
The main objective of this dissertation was to characterize the role of BTN3A1 in the PAg-dependent and PAg-independent Vγ9Vδ2 T cell activation and to evaluate its contribution in the response to influeza A virus infected cells. This research work demonstrated, by using Vγ9Vδ2 TCR MOP-transduced murine cells (reporter cells), that human chromosome 6 (Chr6) is mandatory for PAg-induced stimulation, but not for stimulation with mAb 20.1. The reporter cells responded to mAb 20.1 in cultures with BTN3A1-transduced Chinese hamster ovary cells (CHO BTN3A1) as antigen presenting cells. Nevertheless, for PAg-dependent activation the presence of Chr6 in CHO BTN3A1 was mandatory.
Although reporter cells expressing clonotypically different Vγ9Vδ2 TCRs showed similar PAg response, they clearly differed in the mAb 20.1 response. The reporter cell line transduced with Vγ9Vδ2 TCR D1C55 demonstrated essentially no response to mAb 20.1 compared to Vγ9Vδ2 TCR MOP cells. These findings were further supported by experiments performed with human PBMCs-derived Vγ9Vδ2 T cell clones. The results indicate heterogeneity in the PAg- and 20.1-dependent responses, in terms of CD25 and CD69 expression, among three different Vγ9Vδ2 T cells clones.
Co-cultures of reporter cells with Raji RT1BI and PAg plus mAb 20.1 or single chain antibody 20.1 (sc 20.1) revealed no additive or synergistic activating effects. In contrast, mAb 20.1 or sc 20.1 inhibited the PAg-mediated activation of the reporter cells.
The comparison of the relative contribution of the isoforms BTN3A2 and BTN3A3, in the activation of Vγ9Vδ2 T cells, was undertaken by overexpression of these isoforms in CHO cells. The results showed that BTN3A2 contributes to both PAg- and mAb-induced Vγ9Vδ2 T cell activation. On the contrary, BTN3A3 does not support PAg-mediated γδ T cell response.
Additionally, mutations in the proposed PAg- and mAb 20.1-binding sites of the extracellular BTN3A1 domain were generated by means of site-directed mutagenesis. These mutations revoked the mAb 20.1-induced Vγ9Vδ2 T cell activation, but not that induced by PAg.
Finally, co-cultures of Vγ9Vδ2 TCR MOP-transduced murine reporter cells with influenza A/PR/8/34-infected cells, or infection of PBMCs with this virus strain indicated that BTN3A1 might be dispensable for the Vγ9Vδ2 T cell response against influenza A.
The data of this research work points out that: i) in addition to BTN3A1, other Chr6-encoded genes are necessary for Vγ9Vδ2 T cell activation with PAg; ii) clonotypical (CDR3) differences influence the PAg- and mAb 20.1-mediated Vγ9Vδ2 T cell activation; iii) the PAg- and mAb 20.1-induced responses are not synergistic and interfere with each other; iv) BTN3A2 and BTN3A3 isoforms differ in the ability to support PAg- or mAb 20.1-dependent Vγ9Vδ2 T cell activation; v) the importance of the intracellular B30.2 domain of BTN3A1, in the Vγ9Vδ2 T cell activation, might be higher than that of the extracellular domain; and vi) in spite of the importance of BTN3A1 in the activation of Vγ9Vδ2 T cells, it is possible that many molecules with redundant functions are involved in the elimination of influenza virus infection by these cells.
In summary, it is possible to hypothesize a model in which BTN3A1 detects prenyl pyrophosphates in the cytoplasm via its B30.2 domain and in association with another protein(s). The binding of PAg to this domain induces a multimerization of BTN3A1 or a conformational change of its extracellular domain (mimicked by mAb 20.1). These modifications might be recognized by the Vγ9Vδ2 TCR or by an associated T cell protein. In the case that the TCR directly recognizes BTN3A1, the intensity of the response will depend on the Vγ9Vδ2 TCR clonotype. Future research will allow to gain a better understanding of BTN3A1, its interaction with other proteins, its actual role in the activation of Vγ9Vδ2 T cells, and its importance in specific models of cancer or infection. This knowledge will be necessary to transform these cells into effective tools in the clinic.
Alveolar echinococcosis (AE) is a severe and life-threatening disease caused by the metacestode larva of the fox-tapeworm Echinococcus multilocularis. Parasite entry into the host evokes an early and potentially parasiticidal Th1 immune response that is gradually replaced by a permissive Th2 response. An immunoregulatory environment has also been reported in the host as the disease progresses. As a result of immunomodulation, E. multilocularis larvae persist in the host for decades without being expelled, and thus almost act like a perfect transplant. Very little is currently known on the molecular basis of the host immunomodulation by E. multilocularis. In this work, in vitro cultivation systems were used to assess the influence of metabolites released by the parasite larvae (E/S products) on host immune effector cells. E/S products of cultivated larvae that respresent the early (primary cells) and chronic (metacestode vesicles) phase of AE induced apoptosis and tolerogenic properties (poor responsiveness to LPS stimulation) in host dendritic cells (DC) whereas those of control larvae (protoscoleces) failed to do so. These findings show that the early infective stage of E. multilocularis induces tolerogenicity in host DC, which is most probably important for generating an immunosuppressive environment at an infection phase in which the parasite is highly vulnerable to host attacks. Interestingly, metacestode E/S products promoted the conversion of naïve CD4+ T-cells into Foxp3+ regulatory T-cells in vitro, whereas primary cell and protoscolex E/S products failed to do it. Since Foxp3+ regulatory T-cells are generally known to mediate immunosuppression, the present finding indicates that Foxp3+ regulatory T-cells, expanded by E/S products of the metacestode larva, could play a role in the parasite-driven immunomodulation of the host observed during AE. Furthermore, a substantial increase in number and frequency of suppressive Foxp3+ regulatory T-cells could be observed within peritoneal exudates of mice following intraperitoneal injection of E. multilocularis metacestodes, indicating that Foxp3+ regulatory T-cells could also play an important role in E. multilocularis-driven immunomodulation in vivo. Interestingly, a parasite activin ortholog, EmACT, secreted by metacestodes, was shown to expand host regulatory T-cells in a TGF-β-dependent manner, similarly to mammalian activin A. This observation indicated that E. multilocularis utilizes evolutionarily conserved TGF-β superfamily ligands, like EmACT, to expand host regulatory T-cells. Taken together, the present findings suggest EmACT, a parasite activin secreted by the metacestode and capable of expanding host regulatory T-cells, as an important player in the host immunomodulation by E. multilocularis larvae. Another parasite factor EmTIP, homologous to mammalian T-cell immunomodulatory protein (TIP) was characterized in this work. EmTIP could be detected in the secretions of the parasite primary cells and localized to the intercellular space within the parasite larvae. EmTIP blockade inhibited the proliferation of E. multilocularis primary cells and the formation of metacestode vesicles indicating a major role for parasite development. Furthermore, EmTIP evoked a strong release of IFN-γ by CD4+ T-cells hence suggesting that the secretion of this factor as a result of its role in parasite development could “secondarily” induce a potentially protective Th1 response. In conclusion, this work identified two molecules, EmACT and EmTIP, with high immunomodulatory potential that are released by E. multilocularis larvae. The data presented do provide insights into the mechanisms of parasite-driven host immunomodulation during AE that are highly relevant for the development of anti-parasitic immune therapies.