Refine
Has Fulltext
- yes (14)
Is part of the Bibliography
- yes (14)
Document Type
- Doctoral Thesis (14)
Language
- English (14) (remove)
Keywords
- Hydrogel (14) (remove)
Institute
- Abteilung für Funktionswerkstoffe der Medizin und der Zahnheilkunde (6)
- Graduate School of Life Sciences (3)
- Institut für Funktionsmaterialien und Biofabrikation (3)
- Institut für Organische Chemie (3)
- Graduate School of Science and Technology (2)
- Klinik und Poliklinik für Unfall-, Hand-, Plastische und Wiederherstellungschirurgie (Chirurgische Klinik II) (2)
- Fakultät für Chemie und Pharmazie (1)
- Institut für Pharmazie und Lebensmittelchemie (1)
- Lehrstuhl für Orthopädie (1)
The objective of this thesis was the synthesis and characterisation of two linear multifunctional PEG-alternatives for bioconjugation and hydrogel formation: i) Hydrophilic acrylate based copolymers containing peptide binding units and ii) hydrophilic polyether based copolymers containing different functional groups for a physical crosslinking.
In section 3.1 the successful synthesis of water soluble and linear acrylate based polymers containing oligo(ethylene glycol) methyl ether acrylate with either linear thioester functional 2-hydroxyethyl acrylate, thiolactone acrylamide, or vinyl azlactone via the living radical polymerisation technique Reversible Addition Fragmentation Chain Transfer (RAFT) and via free-radical polymerisation is described. The obtained polymers were characterized via GPC, 1H NMR, IR and RAMAN spectroscopy.
The RAFT end group was found to be difficult to remove from these short polymer chains and accordingly underwent the undesired side reaction aminolysis with the peptide during the conjugation studies. Besides that, polymers without RAFT end groups did not show any binding of the peptide at the thioester groups, which can be improved in future by using higher reactant concentrations and higher amount of binding units at the polymer. Polymers containing the highly reactive azlactone group showed a peptide binding of 19 %, but unfortunately this function also underwent spontaneous hydrolysis before the peptide could even be bound. In all cases, oligo(ethylene glycol) methyl ether acrylate was used with a relatively high molecular weight (Mn = 480 Da) was used, which eventually was efficiently shielding the introduced binding units from the added peptide. In future, a shorter monomer with Mn = 300 Da or less or hydrophilic N,N’-dialkyl acrylamide based polymers with less steric hindrance could be used to improve this bioconjugation system. Additionally, the amount of monomers containing peptide binding units in the polymer can be increased and have an additional spacer to achieve higher loading efficiency.
The water soluble, linear and short polyether based polymers, so called polyglycidols, were successfully synthesized and modified as described in section 3.2. The obtained polymers were characterized using GPC, 1H NMR, 31P{1H} NMR, IR, and RAMAN spectroscopy. The allyl groups which were present up to 20 % were used for radical induced thiol-ene chemistry for the introduction of functional groups intended for the formation of the physically crosslinking hydrogels. For the positively charged polymers, first a chloride group had to be introduced for the subsequent nucleophilic substitution with the imidazolium compound. There, degrees of modifications were found in the range 40-97 % due to the repulsion forces of the charges, decreased concentration of active chloride groups, and limiting solution concentrations of the polymer for this reaction. For the negatively charged polymers, first a protected phosphonamide moiety was introduced with a deprotection step afterwards showing 100 % conversion for all reactions. Preliminary hydrogel tests did not show a formation of a three-dimensional network of the polymer chains which was attributed to the short backbone length of the used polymers, but the gained knowledge about the synthetic routes for the modification of the polymer was successfully transferred to longer linear polyglycidols. The same applies to the introduction of electron rich and electron poor compounds showing π-π stacking interactions by UV-vis spectroscopy.
Finally, long linear polyglycidyl ethers were synthesised successfully up to molecular weights of Mn ~ 30 kDa in section 3.3, which was also proven by GPC, 1H NMR, IR and RAMAN spectroscopy. This applies to the homopolymerisation of ethoxyethyl glycidyl ether, allyl glycidyl ether and their copolymerisation with an amount of the allyl compound ~ 10 %. Attempts for higher molecular weights up to 100 kDa showed an uncontrolled polymerisation behaviour and eventually can be improved in future by choosing a lower initiation temperature. Also, the allyl side groups were modified via radical induced thiol-ene chemistry to obtain positively charged functionalities via imidazolium moieties (85 %) and negatively charged functionalities via phosphonamide moieties (100 %) with quantitative degree of modifications. Hydrogel tests have still shown a remaining solution by using long linear polyglycidols carrying negative charges with long/short linear polyglycidols carrying positive charges. The addition of calcium chloride led to a precipitate of the polymer instead of a three-dimensional network formation representing a too high concentration of ions and therefore shielding water molecules with prevention from dissolving the polymer. These systems can be improved by tuning the polymers structure like longer polymer chains, longer spacer between polymer backbone and charge, and higher amount of functional groups.
The objective of the thesis was partly reached containing detailed investigated synthetic routes for the design and characterisation of functional polymers which could be used in future with improvements for bioconjugation and hydrogel formation tests.
In the field of biofabrication, biopolymer-based hydrogels are often used as bulk materials with defined structures or as bioinks. Despite their excellent biocompatibility, biopolymers need chemical modification to fulfill mechanical stability.
In this thesis, the primary alcohol of hyaluronic acid was oxidized using TEMPO/TCC oxidation to generate aldehyde groups without ring-opening mechanism of glycol cleavage using sodium periodate. For crosslinking reaction of the aldehyde groups, adipic acid dihydrazide was used as bivalent crosslinker for Schiff Base chemistry. This hydrogel system with fast and reversible crosslinking mechanism was used successfully as bulk hydrogel for chondrogenic differentiation with human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSC).
Gelatin was modified with pentenoic acid for crosslinking reaction via light controllable thiol-ene reaction, using thiolated 4-arm sPEG as multivalent crosslinker. Due to preservation of the thermo responsive property of gelatin by avoiding chain degradation during modification reaction, this gelatin-based hydrogel system was successfully processed via 3D printing with low polymer concentration. Good cell viability was achieved using hMSC in various concentrations after 3D bioprinting and chondrogenic differentiation showed promising results.
The aim of the work was the development of thiol-ene cross-linked hydrogels based on functionalized poly(glycidol)s (PG) and hyaluronic acid (HA) for extrusion based 3D bioprinting. Additionally, the functionalization of the synthesized PG with peptides and the suitability of these polymers for physically cross-linked gels were investigated, in a proof of principle study in order to demonstrate the versatile use of PG polymers in hydrogel development.
First, the precursor polymers of the different hydrogel systems were synthesized. For thiol-ene cross-linked hydogels, linear allyl-functionalized PG (P(AGE-co-G)) and three different thiol-(SH-)functionalized polymers, ester-containing PG-SH (PG SHec), ester-free PG-SH (PG-SHef) and HA-SH were synthesized and analysed, The degree of functionalization of these polymers was adjustable.
For physically cross-linked hydrogels, peptide-functionalized PG (P(peptide-co-G)), was synthesized through polymer analogue thiol-ene modification of P(AGE-co-G).
Subsequently, thiol-ene cross-linked hydrogels were prepared with the synthesized thiol- and allyl-functionalized polymers. Depending on the origin of the used polymers, two different systems were obtained: on the one hand synthetic hydrogels consisting of PG-SHec/ef and P(AGE-co-G) and on the other hand hybrid gels, consisting of HA-SH and P(AGE-co-G). In synthetic gels, the degradability of the gels was determined by the applied PG-SH. The use of PG-SHec resulted in hydrolytically degradable hydrogels, whereas the cross-linking with PG-SHef resulted in non-degradable gels.
The physical properties of these different hydrogel systems were determined by swelling, mechanical and diffusion studies and subsequently compared among each other. In swelling studies the differences of degradable and non-degradable synthetic hydrogels as well as the differences of synthetic compared to hybrid hydrogels were demonstrated.
Next, the stiffness and the swelling ratios (SR) of the established hydrogel systems were examined in dependency of different parameters, such as incubation time, polymer concentration and UV irradiation. In general, these measurements revealed the same trends for synthetic and hybrid hydrogels: an increased polymer concentration as well as prolonged UV irradiation led to an increased network density. Moreover, it was demonstrated that the incorporation of additional non-bound HMW HA hampered the hydrogel cross-linking resulting in gels with decreased stiffness and increased SR. This effect was strongly dependent on the amount of additional HMW HA.
The diffusion of different molecular weight fluorescein isothiocyanate-dextran (FITC-dextran) through hybrid hydrogels (with/without HMW HA) gave information about the mesh size of these gels. The smallest FITC-dextran (4 kDa) completely diffused through both hydrogel systems within the first week, whereas only 55 % of 40 kDa and 5-10 % HMW FITC-dextrans (500 kDa and 2 MDa) could diffuse through the networks.
The applicability of synthetic and hybrid hydrogels for cartilage regeneration purpose was investigated through by biological examinations. It was proven that both gels support the survival of embedded human mesenchymal stromal cells (hMSCs) (21/28 d in vitro culture), however, the chondrogenic differentiation was significantly improved in hybrid hydrogels compared to synthetic gels. The addition of non-bound HMW HA resulted in a slightly less distinct chondrogenesis.
Lastly the printability of the established hydrogel systems was examined. Therefore, the viscoelastic properties of the hydrogel solutions were adjusted by incorporation of non-bound HMW HA. Both systems could be successfully printed with high resolution and high shape fidelity.
The introduction of the double printing approach with reinforcing PCL allowed printing of hydrogel solutions with lower viscosities. As a consequence, the amount of additional HMW HA necessary for printing could be reduced allowing successful printing of hybrid hydrogel solutions with embedded cells. It was demonstrated that the integrated cells survived the printing process with high viability measured after 21 d. Moreover, by this reinforcing technique, robust hydrogel-containing constructs were fabricated.
In addition to thiol-ene cross-linked hydrogels, hydrogel cross-linking via ionic interactions was investigated with a hybrid hydrogel based on HMW HA and peptide-functionalized PG. Rheological measurements revealed an increase in the viscosity of a 2 wt.% HMW HA solution by the addition of peptide-functionalized PG. The increase in viscosity could be attributed to the ionic interactions between the positively charge PG and the negatively charge HMW HA.
In conclusion, throughout this thesis thiol-ene chemistry and PG were introduced as promising cross-linking reaction and polymer precursor for the field of biofabrication. Furthermore, the differences of hybrid and synthetic hydrogels as well as chemically and physically cross-linked hydrogels were demonstrated.
Moreover, the double printing approach was demonstrated to be a promising tool for the fabrication of robust hydrogel-containing constructs. It opens the possibility of printing hydrogels that were not printable yet, due to too low viscosities.
Articular cartilage damage caused by sports accidents, trauma or gradual wear and tear can lead to degeneration and the development of osteoarthritis because cartilage tissue has only limited capacity for intrinsic healing. Osteoarthritis causes reduction of mobility and chronic pain and is one of the leading causes of disability in the elderly population. Current clinical treatment options can reduce pain and restore mobility for some time, but the formed repair tissue has mostly inferior functionality compared to healthy articular cartilage and does not last long-term. Articular cartilage tissue engineering is a promising approach for the improvement of the quality of cartilage repair tissue and regeneration. In this thesis, a promising new cell type for articular cartilage tissue engineering, the so-called articular cartilage progenitor cell (ACPC), was investigated for the first time in the two different hydrogels agarose and HA-SH/P(AGE-co-G) in comparison to mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs). In agarose, ACPCs´ and MSCs´ chondrogenic capacity was investigated under normoxic (21 % oxygen) and hypoxic (2 % oxygen) conditions in monoculture constructs and in zonally layered co-culture constructs with ACPCs in the upper layer and MSCs in the lower layer. In the newly developed hyaluronic acid (HA)-based hydrogel HA-SH/P(AGE-co-G), chondrogenesis of ACPCs and MSCs was also evaluated in monoculture constructs and in zonally layered co-culture constructs like in agarose hydrogel. Additionally, the contribution of the bioactive molecule hyaluronic acid to chondrogenic gene expression of MSCs was investigated in 2D monolayer, 3D pellet and HA-SH hydrogel culture. It was shown that both ACPCs and MSCs could chondrogenically differentiate in agarose and HA-SH/P(AGE-co-G) hydrogels. In agarose hydrogel, ACPCs produced a more articular cartilage-like tissue than MSCs that contained more glycosaminoglycan (GAG), less type I collagen and only little alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity. Hypoxic conditions did not increase extracellular matrix (ECM) production of ACPCs and MSCs significantly but improved the quality of the neo-cartilage tissue produced by MSCs. The creation of zonal agarose constructs with ACPCs in the upper layer and MSCs in the lower layer led to an ECM production in zonal hydrogels that lay in general in between the ECM production of non-zonal ACPC and MSC hydrogels. Even though zonal co-culture of ACPCs and MSCs did not increase ECM production, the two cell types influenced each other and, for example, modulated the staining intensities of type II and type I collagen in comparison to non-zonal constructs under normoxic and hypoxic conditions. In HA-SH/P(AGE-co-G) hydrogel, MSCs produced more ECM than ACPCs, but the ECM was limited to the pericellular region for both cell types. Zonal HASH/P(AGE-co-G) hydrogels resulted in a native-like zonal distribution of ECM as MSCs in the lower zone produced more ECM than ACPCs in the upper zone. It appeared that chondrogenesis of ACPCs was supported by hydrogels without biological attachment sites such as agarose, and that chondrogenesis of MSCs benefited from hydrogels with biological cues like HA. As HA is an attractive material for cartilage tissue engineering, and the HA-based hydrogel HA-SH/P(AGE-co-G) appeared to be beneficial for MSC chondrogenic differentiation, the contribution of HA to chondrogenic gene expression of MSCs was investigated. An upregulation of chondrogenic gene expression was found in 2D monolayer and 3D pellet culture of MSCs in response to HA supplementation, while gene expression of osteogenic and adipogenic transcription factors was not upregulated. MSCs, encapsulated in a HA-based hydrogel, showed upregulation of gene expression for chondrogenic, osteogenic and adipogenic differentiation markers as well as for stemness markers. In a 3D bioprinting process, using the HA-based hydrogel, gene expression levels of MSCs mostly did not change. Nevertheless, expression of three tested genes (COL2A1, SOX2, CD168) was downregulated in printed in comparison to cast constructs, underscoring the importance of closely monitoring cellular behaviour during and after the printing process. In summary, it was confirmed that ACPCs are a promising cell source for articular cartilage engineering with advantages over MSCs when they were cultured in a suitable hydrogel like agarose. The performance of the cells was strongly dependent on the hydrogel environment they were cultured in. The different chondrogenic performance of ACPCs and MSCs in agarose and HA-SH/P(AGE-co-G) hydrogels highlighted the importance of choosing suitable hydrogels for the different cell types used in articular cartilage tissue engineering. Hydrogels with high polymer content, such as the investigated HA-SH/P(AGE-co-G) hydrogels, can limit ECM distribution to the pericellular area and should be developed further towards less polymer content, leading to more homogenous ECM distribution of the cultured cells. The influence of HA on chondrogenic gene expression and on the balance between differentiation and maintenance of stemness in MSCs was demonstrated. More studies should be performed in the future to further elucidate the signalling functions of HA and the effects of 3D bioprinting in HA-based hydrogels. Taken together, the results of this thesis expand the knowledge in the area of articular cartilage engineering with regard to the rational combination of cell types and hydrogel materials and open up new possible approaches to the regeneration of articular cartilage tissue.
Synthetic bone replacement materials have their application in non-load bearing defects with the function of (re-)construction or substitution of bone. This tissue itself represents a biological composite material based on mineralized collagen fibrils and combines the mechanical strength of the mineral with the ductility of the organic matrix. By mimicking these outstanding properties with polymer-cement-composites, an imitation of bone is feasible. A promising approach for such replacement materials are dual setting systems, which are generated by dissolution-precipitation reaction with cement setting in parallel to polymerization and gelation of the organic phase forming a coherent hydrogel network. Hereby, the high brittleness of the pure inorganic network was shifted to a more ductile and elastic behavior.
The aim of this thesis was focused on the development of different dual setting systems to modify pure calcium phosphate cements’ (CPCs’) mechanical performance by incorporation of a hydrogel matrix.
A dual setting system based on hydroxyapatite (HA) and cross-linked 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate (HEMA) via radical polymerization was advanced by homogenous incorporation of a degradable cross-linker composed of poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) as well as poly(lactic acid) (PLA) with reactive terminal methacrylate functionalities (PEG-PLLA-DMA). By integration of this high molecular weight structure in the HEMA-hydrogel network, a significant increase in energy absorption (toughness) under 4-point bending testing was observed. An addition of only 10 wt% hydrogel precursor (referred to the liquid phase) resulted in a duplication of stress over a period of 8 days. Additionally, the calculated elasticity was positively affected and up to six times higher compared to pure HA. With a constantly applied force during compressive strength testing, a deformation and thus strain levels of about 10 % were reached immediately after preparation.
For higher degradability, the system was modified in a second approach regarding organic as well as inorganic phase. The latter component was changed by brushite forming cement that is resorbable in vivo due to solubility processes. This CPC was combined with a hydrogel based on PEG-PLLA-DMA and other dimethacrylated PEGs with different molecular weights and concentrations. Hereby, new reaction conditions were created including a shift to acidic conditions. On this ground, the challenge was to find a new radical initiator system. Suitable candidates were ascorbic acid and hydrogen peroxide. that started the polymerization and successful gelation in this environment. These highly flexible dual set composites showed a very high ductility with an overall low strength compared to HA-based models. After removal of the applied force during compressive strength testing, a complete shape recovery was observed for the samples containing the highest polymeric amount (50 wt%) of PEG-PLLA-DMA.
Regarding phase distribution in the constructs, a homogenously incorporated hydrogel network was demonstrated in a decalcifying study with ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid. Intact, coherent hydrogels remained after dissolution of the inorganic phase via calcium ion complexation.
In a third approach, the synthetic hydrogel matrix of the previously described system was replaced by the natural biopolymer gelatin. Simultaneously to brushite formation, physical as well as chemical cross-linking by the compound genipin was performed in the dual setting materials. Thanks to the incorporation of gelatin, elasticity increased significantly, in which concentrations up to 10.0 w/v% resulted in a certain cohesion of samples after compressive strength testing. They did not dissociate in little pieces but remained intact cuboid specimens though having cracks or fissures. Furthermore, the drug release of two active pharmaceutical ingredients (vancomycin and rifampicin) was investigated over a time frame of 5 weeks. The release exponent was determined according to Korsmeyer-Peppas with n = 0.5 which corresponds to the drug liberation model of Higuchi. A sustained release was observed for the antibiotic vancomycin encapsulated in composites with a gelatin concentration of 10.0 w/v% and a powder-to-liquid ratio of 2.5 g/mL.
With respect to these developments of different dual setting systems, three novel approaches were successfully established by polymerization of monomers and cross-linking of precursors forming an incorporated, homogenous hydrogel matrix in a calcium phosphate network. All studies showed an essential transfer of mechanical performance in direction of flexibility and bendability.
Structure-property relationships in poly(2-oxazoline)/poly(2-oxazine) based drug formulations
(2020)
According to estimates, more than 40% of all new chemical entities developed in pharmaceutical industry are practically insoluble in water. Naturally, the demand for excipients which increase the water solubility and thus, the bioavailability of such hydrophobic drugs is enormous. Poly(2-oxazoline)s (POx) are currently intensively discussed as highly versatile class of biomaterials. Although selected POx based micellar drug formulations exhibit extraordinarily high drug loadings > 50 wt.% enabling high anti-tumor efficacies in vivo, the formulation of other hydrophobic compounds has failed. This casts doubt on the general understanding in which a hydrophobic active pharmaceutical ingredient is dissolved rather unspecifically in the hydrophobic core of the micelles following the fundamental concept of “like dissolves like”. Therefore, a closer look at the interactions between all components within a formulation becomes increasingly important. To do so, a large vehicle platform was synthesized, loaded with various hydrophobic drugs of different structure, and the formulations subsequently characterized with conventional and less conventional techniques. The obtained in-depth insights helped to develop a more thorough understanding about the interaction of polymer and incorporated API finally revealing morphologies deviating from a classical core/shell structure. During these studies, the scarcely investigated polymer class of poly(2-oxazine)s (POzi) was found as promising drug-delivery vehicle for hydrophobic drugs. Apart from this fundamental research, the anti-tumor efficacy of the two APIs curcumin and atorvastatin has been studied in more detail. To increase the scope of POx and POzi based formulations designed for intravenous administration, a curcumin loaded hydrogel was developed as injectable drug-depot.
After examining suitable parameters for a newly designed system, dynamic SIPGP could be developed. For the first time, SIPGP was performed while applying a constant flow of monomer solution through the reaction system. This added a new parameter: the flow rate (rfl). Accordingly, this parameter was examined, comparing dynamic to static SIPGP. It could be shown, that by applying higher rfl to the system, the contact angle increases, which indicates a slower coating. The flow patterns inside the reactor were then modelled and calculated. These calculations indicated, that, due to higher flow velocities, the contact angle on the coated samples would be lower on the sides of the sample and higher in the middle. This finding was verified by contact angle measurements. The influence of dynamic SIPGP on the temperature inside the reaction chamber during the reaction was examined by temperature sensors inside the reactor. This showed, that the constant flow of monomer solution can be utilized to decrease the warming of the reaction solution during the reaction. Finally it was shown, that dynamic SIPGP can decrease the formation of bulk polymer on the sample, which is forming during the reaction. This enables SIPGP to fabricate more homogeneous coatings by applying a constant monomer flow.
Motivated by the great potential which is offered by the combination of additive manufacturing and tissue engineering, a novel polymeric bioink platform based on poly(2 oxazoline)s was developed which might help to further advance the young and upcoming field of biofabrication. In the present thesis, the synthesis as well as the characteristics of several diblock copolymers consisting of POx and POzi have been investigated with a special focus on their suitability as bioinks.
In general, the copolymerization of 2-oxazolines and 2-oxazines bearing different alkyl side chains was demonstrated to yield polymers in good agreement with the degree of polymerization aimed for and moderate to low dispersities.
For every diblock copolymer synthesized during the present study, a more or less pronounced dependency of the dynamic viscosity on temperature could be demonstrated. Diblock copolymers comprising a hydrophilic PMeOx block and a thermoresponsive PnPrOzi block showed temperature induced gelation above a degree of polymerization of 50 and a polymer concentration of 20 wt%. Such a behavior has never been described before for copolymers solely consisting of poly(cyclic imino ether)s.
Physically cross linked hydrogels based on POx b POzi copolymers exhibit reverse thermal gelation properties like described for solutions of PNiPAAm and Pluronic F127. However, by applying SANS, DLS, and SLS it could be demonstrated that the underlying gel formation mechanism is different for POx b POzi based hydrogels. It appears that polymersomes with low polydispersity are formed already at very low polymer concentrations of 6 mg/L. Increasing the polymer concentration resulted in the formation of a bicontinuous sponge like structure which might be formed due to the merger of several vesicles. For longer polymer chains a phase transition into a gyroid structure was postulated and corresponds well with the observed rheological data.
Stable hydrogels with an unusually high mechanical strength (G’ ~ 4 kPa) have been formed above TGel which could be adjusted over a range of 20 °C by changing the degree of polymerization if maintaining the symmetric polymer architecture. Variations of the chain ends revealed only a minor influence on TGel whereas the influence of the solvent should not be neglected as shown by a comparison of cell culture medium and MilliQ water.
Rotationally as well as oscillatory rheological measurements revealed a high suitability for printing as POx b POzi based hydrogels exhibit strong shear thinning behavior in combination with outstanding recovery properties after high shear stress.
Cell viability assays (WST-1) of PMeOx b PnPrOzi copolymers against NIH 3T3 fibroblasts and HaCat cells indicated that the polymers were well tolerated by the cells as no dose-dependent cytotoxicity could be observed after 24 h at non-gelling concentrations up to 100 g/L.
In summary, copolymers consisting of POx and POzi significantly increased the accessible range of properties of POx based materials. In particular thermogelation of aqueous solutions of diblock copolymers comprising PMeOx and PnPrOzi was never described before for any copolymer consisting solely of POx or POzi. In combination with other characteristics, e.g. very good cytocompatibility at high polymer concentrations and comparably high mechanical strength, the formed hydrogels could be successfully used for 3D bioprinting. Although the results appear promising and the developed hydrogel is a serious bioink candidate, competition is tough and it remains an open question which system or systems will be used in the future.
The aim of the thesis was to develop water soluble poly(2-oxazoline) (POx) copolymers with new side group functionalities, which can be used for the formation of hydrogels in biomedical applications and for the development of peptide-polymer conjugates.
First, random copolymers of the monomer MeOx or EtOx with ButEnOx and EtOx with DecEnOx were synthesized and characterized. The vinyl functionality brought into the copolymer by the monomers ButEnOx and DecEnOx would later serve for post-polymerization functionalization. The synthesized copolymers were further functionalized with thiols via post-polymerization functionalization using a newly developed synthesis protocol or with a protected catechol molecule for hydrogel formation. For the formation of peptide-polymer conjugates, a cyclic thioester, namely thiolactone acrylamide and an azlactone precursor, whose synthesis was newly developed, were attached to the side chain of P(EtOx-co-ButEnOx) copolymers.
The application of the functionalized thiol copolymers as hydrogels using thiol-ene chemistry for cross-linking was demonstrated. The swelling behavior and mechanical properties were characterized. The hydrophilicity of the network as well as the cross-linking density strongly influenced the swelling behavior and the mechanical strength of the hydrogels. All hydrogels showed good cell viability results.
The hydrogel networks based on MeOx and EtOx were loaded with two dyes, fluorescein and methylene blue. It was observed that the uptake of the more hydrophilic dye fluorescein depended more on the ability of the hydrogel to swell. In contrast, the uptake of the more hydrophobic dye methylene blue was less dependent on the swelling degree, but much more on the hydrophilicity of the network.
For the potential application as cartilage glue, (biohybrid) hydrogels were synthesized based on the catechol-functionalized copolymers, with and without additional fibrinogen, using sodium periodate as the oxidizing agent. The system allowed for degradation due to the incorporated ester linkages at the cross-linking points. The swelling behavior as well as the mechanical properties were characterized. As expected, hydrogels with higher degrees of cross-linking showed less swelling and higher elastic modulus. The addition of fibrinogen however increased the elasticity of the network, which can be favorable for the intended application as a cartilage glue. Biological evaluation clearly demonstrated the advantage of degradable ester links in the hydrogel network, where chondrocytes were able to bridge the artificial gap in contrast to hydrogels without any ester motifs.
Lastly, different ways to form peptide-polymer conjugates were presented. Peptides were attached with the thiol of the terminal cysteine group to the vinyl side chain of P(EtOx-co-ButEnOx) copolymers by radical thiol-ene chemistry. Another approach was to use a cyclic thioester, thiolactone, or an azlactone functionality to bind a model peptide via native chemical ligation. The two latter named strategies to bind peptides to POx side chains are especially interesting as one and in the case of thiolactone two free thiols are still present at the binding site after the reaction, which can, for example, be used for further thiol-ene cross-linking to form POx hydrogels.
In summary, side functional poly(oxazoline) copolymers show great potential for numerous biomedical applications. The various side chain functionalities can be introduced by an appropriate monomer or by post-polymerization functionalization, as demonstrated. By their multi-functionality, hydrogel characteristics, such as cross-linking degree and mechanical strength, can be fine-tuned and adjusted depending on the application in the human body. In addition, the presented chemoselective and orthogonal reaction strategies can be used in the future to synthesize polymer conjugates, which can, for example, be used in drug delivery or in tissue regeneration.
Chondrogenic differentiation of human mesenchymal stem cells and articular cartilage reconstruction
(2008)
Articular cartilage defects are still one of the major challenges in orthopedic and trauma surgery. Today, autologous chondrocyte transplantation (ACT), as a cell-based therapy, is an established procedure. However, one major limitation of this technique is the loss of the chondrogenic phenotype during expansion. Human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) have an extensive proliferation potential and the capacity to differentiate into chondrocytes when maintained under specific conditions. They are therefore considered as candidate cells for tissue engineering approaches of functional cartilage tissue substitutes. First in this study, hMSCs were embedded in a collagen type I hydrogel to evaluate the cartilaginous construct in vitro. HMSC collagen hydrogels cultivated in different culture media showed always a marked contraction, most pronounced in chondrogenic differentiation medium supplemented with TGF-ß1. After stimulation with chondrogenic factors (dexamethasone and TGF-ß1) hMSCs were able to undergo chondrogenesis when embedded in the collagen type I hydrogel, as evaluated by the temporal induction of cartilage-specific gene expression. Furthermore, the cells showed a chondrocyte-like appearance and were homogeneously distributed within a proteoglycan- and collagen type II-rich extracellular matrix, except a small area in the center of the constructs. In this study, chondrogenic differentiation could not be realized with every hMSC preparation. With the improvement of the culture conditions, e.g. the use of a different FBS lot in the gel fabrication process, a higher amount of cartilage-specific matrix deposition could be achieved. Nevertheless, the large variations in the differentiation capacity display the high donor-to-donor variability influencing the development of a cartilaginous construct. Taken together, the results demonstrate that the collagen type I hydrogel is a suitable carrier matrix for hMSC-based cartilage regeneration therapies which present a promising future alternative to ACT. Second, to further improve the quality of tissue-engineered cartilaginous constructs, mechanical stimulation in specific bioreactor systems are often employed. In this study, the effects of mechanical loading on hMSC differentiation have been examined. HMSC collagen hydrogels were cultured in a defined chondrogenic differentiation medium without TGF-ß1 and subjected to a combined mechanical stimulation protocol, consisting of perfusion and cyclic uniaxial compression. Bioreactor cultivation neither affected overall cell viability nor the cell number in collagen hydrogels. Compared with non-loaded controls, mechanical loading promoted the gene expression of COMP and biglycan and induced an up-regulation of matrix metalloproteinase 3. These results circumstantiate that hMSCs are sensitive to mechanical forces, but their differentiation to chondrocytes could not be induced. Further studies are needed to identify the specific metabolic pathways which are altered by mechanical stimulation. Third, for the development of new cell-based therapies for articular cartilage repair, a reliable cell monitoring technique is required to track the cells in vivo non-invasively and repeatedly. This study aimed at analyzing systematically the performance and biological impact of a simple and efficient labeling protocol for hMSCs. Very small superparamagnetic iron oxide particles (VSOPs) were used as magnetic resonance (MR) contrast agent. Iron uptake was confirmed histologically with prussian blue staining and quantified by mass spectrometry. Compared with unlabeled cells, VSOP-labeling did neither influence significantly the viability nor the proliferation potential of hMSCs. Furthermore, iron incorporation did not affect the differentiation capacity of hMSCs. The efficiency of the labeling protocol was assessed with high resolution MR imaging at 11.7 Tesla. VSOP-labeled hMSCs were visualized in a collagen type I hydrogel indicated by distinct hypointense spots in the MR images, resulting from an iron specific loss of signal intensity. This was confirmed by prussian blue staining. In summary, this labeling technique has great potential to visualize hMSCs and track their migration after transplantation for articular cartilage repair with MR imaging.