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Background: The frequency of the most observed cancer, Non Hodgkin Lymphoma (NHL), is further rising. Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) is the most common of the NHLs. There are two subgroups of DLBCL with different gene expression patterns: ABC (“Activated B-like DLBCL”) and GCB (“Germinal Center B-like DLBCL”). Without therapy the patients often die within a few months, the ABC type exhibits the more aggressive behaviour. A further B-cell lymphoma is the Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL). It is rare and shows very poor prognosis. There is no cure yet. Methods: In this project these B-cell lymphomas were examined with methods from bioinformatics, to find new characteristics or undiscovered events on the molecular level. This would improve understanding and therapy of lymphomas. For this purpose we used survival, gene expression and comparative genomic hybridization (CGH) data. In some clinical studies, you get large data sets, from which one can reveal yet unknown trends. Results (MCL): The published proliferation signature correlates directly with survival. Exploratory analyses of gene expression and CGH data of MCL samples (n=71) revealed a valid grouping according to the median of the proliferation signature values. The second axis of correspondence analysis distinguishes between good and bad prognosis. Statistical testing (moderate t-test, Wilcoxon rank-sum test) showed differences in the cell cycle and delivered a network of kinases, which are responsible for the difference between good and bad prognosis. A set of seven genes (CENPE, CDC20, HPRT1, CDC2, BIRC5, ASPM, IGF2BP3) predicted, similarly well, survival patterns as proliferation signature with 20 genes. Furthermore, some bands could be associated with prognosis in the explorative analysis (chromosome 9: 9p24, 9p23, 9p22, 9p21, 9q33 and 9q34). Results (DLBCL): New normalization of gene expression data of DLBCL patients revealed better separation of risk groups by the 2002 published signature based predictor. We could achieve, similarly well, a separation with six genes. Exploratory analysis of gene expression data could confirm the subgroups ABC and GCB. We recognized a clear difference in early and late cell cycle stages of cell cycle genes, which can separate ABC and GCB. Classical lymphoma and best separating genes form a network, which can classify and explain the ABC and GCB groups. Together with gene sets which identify ABC and GCB we get a network, which can classify and explain the ABC and GCB groups (ASB13, BCL2, BCL6, BCL7A, CCND2, COL3A1, CTGF, FN1, FOXP1, IGHM, IRF4, LMO2, LRMP, MAPK10, MME, MYBL1, NEIL1 and SH3BP5; Altogether these findings are useful for diagnosis, prognosis and therapy (cytostatic drugs).
Human caretaker genes play a central role in the DNA damage response. Their defects cause a number of rare diseases which show genetic instability and increased propensity to malignant cell growth. The first of these diseases to be described in this thesis is Fanconi anemia (FA), a rare chromosome instability disorder with recessive inheritance characterized by progressive bone marrow failure, variable congenital malformations, and cancer predisposition. There are at least 13 FA complementation groups (FA-A, B, C, D1, D2, E, F, G, I, J, L, M and N), each representing mutations in a distinct gene. To date, except FANCI all the corresponding genes have been identified, denoted as FANC-A, B, C, D1/BRCA2, D2, E, F, G, J/BRIP1/BACH1, L/PHF9, M/Hef and N/PALB2.Further information is provided in chapters 1 and 2. FA cells are characterized by high sensitivity to DNA crosslinking agents and to elevated oxygen tension, but it is controversial whether they are also radiosensitive. Systematic testing (chapter 3) of primary skin fibroblast cultures from all currently known FA complementation groups revealed no increased sensitivity towards ionizing radiation (IR) and ultra-violet light (UV) when growing cells at physiological (5% v/v) oxygen levels. Despite considerable interstrain variations FA cells showed no systematic differences to cell cultures derived from healthy controls, whereas positive controls (Ataxia telangiectasia and Cockayne syndrome) proved highly sensitive to IR or UV. Lack of radiosensitivity was also shown for the FANCD2 gene, a central gene in the FA/BRCA pathway whose mutational inactivation was studied in a large patient cohort. FA patients excluded previously from complementation groups FA-A, -C, E, F, G or L were screened for mutations in FANCD2. Even though mutation analysis of FANCD2 is complicated by the presence of pseudogene regions, biallelic FANCD2 mutations were identified in a series of 32 patients (chapter 4). The predominant types of mutations result in aberrant splicing causing exon skipping, exonisation of intronic sequence, activation of cryptic and creation of new 3´ splice sites. Many alleles were recurrent and could be associated with ethnicity. Interestingly, residual FANCD2 protein was observed in all available patient cell lines, and functionality was indicated by the presence of the monoubiquitinated FANCD2 isoform. This suggests that viability of FA-D2 patients depends on the presence of hypomorphic or leaky mutations. In chapter 5 the worldwide second FA patient belonging to complementation group FA-L is reported. Genetic analysis of patient derived fibroblasts revealed heterozygosity for a 5-bp deletion (exon 7) and a missense substitution (exon 11). In contrast to the tested fibroblasts two independent lymphoid cell lines proved resistant to the DNA crosslinking agent mitomycin C and showed proficient FANCD2 monoubiquitination. The functional reversion due to a compensating mutation in the splice acceptor site results in aberrant splicing and the restoration of the open reading frame. However, the revertant mosaicsm was restricted to the lymphatic cell lines such that there was no clinical improvement involving the other hematopoietic cell lineages, and bone marrow transplantation was required to treat the patients bone marrow failure. A direct link of Fanconi anemia to other DNA repair processes was provided by the identification of the BRCA1 interacting protein 1, BRIP1/BACH1, as a genuine FA gene (chapter 6). Genetic mapping of consanguineous Inuit families resulted in the identification of truncating mutations in BRIP1. In contrast to most of the other FA patients FANCD2 monoubiquitination was intact, linking these patients to complementation group FA-J. Biallelic mutations in BRIP1 were found in eight additional patients, one of whom was assigned previously to FA-J by somatic cell fusion. Therefore it could be shown that the postulated FANCJ gene is identical with BRIP1. This finding emphasizes the close connection between the BRCA- and the FA-family of genes, both involved in the DNA damage response. Biallelic mutations in BRCA2/FANCD1 cause a severe form of Fanconi anemia with childhood malignancies. Recently, a BRCA2 interacting protein was identified as a “partner and localizer of BRCA2” (PALB2) which confers cellular MMC resistance. A candidate gene approach revealed biallelic mutations in seven FA patients that developed solid tumors in early childhood (chapter 7). Patient cells show no or little PALB2 protein, lack of MMC induced RAD51 foci formation, and high chromosomal instability. Transduction of PALB2 cDNA complemented the MMC sensitive phenotype. Therefore, biallelic mutations in PALB2 cause a new subtype of FA, denoted as FA-N, which is connected with a high and early cancer risk. With respect to one of the most prominent but least understood caretaker gene syndromes, Fanconi anemia, this thesis has expanded our knowledge as follows: 1. refutation of major cellular radiosensitivity of FA cell lines regardless of complementation group, 2. detection of hypomorphic mutations and residual protein levels as a prerequisite for viability of the FANCD2 gene, 3. description of the worldwide second patient belonging to complementation group FA-L whose lymphocytes exhibit a novel type of somatic reversion, 4. participation in the discovery and functional characterization of two novel FA genes (FANCJ and FANCN). The last chapter of the thesis deals with a DNA repair pathway that is activated following exposure to ionizing radation. One of the central proteins responding to radiation-induced DNA damage is the product of the ATM gene which signals to a myriad of other proteins in response to DNA double strand breaks, including the NMR complex. This complex formed by the NBS1/MRE11/RAD50 proteins is thought to act as a specifi c sensor of DNA double-strand breaks. Mutations of MRE11 and NBS1 are associated with the radiation sensitivity syndromes Ataxia-telangiectasia-like disorder (AT-LD) and Nijmegen breakage syndrome (NBS), respectively. Chapter 8 presents the first ever identified patient with RAD50 deficiency due to biallelic germline mutations in the RAD50 gene. An 18-year-old German girl who has a variant form of NBS without immunodeficiency was found to be compound heterozygous for a nonsense mutation and the loss of the natural termination signal in the RAD50 gene. RAD50 protein expression was reduced to less than one tenth of normal in her fibroblasts and lymphoblastoid cells. At the nuclear level, RAD50 deficiency was associated with a high frequency of spontaneous chromatid exchanges and with the failure to form MRE11 and NBS1 nuclear foci in response to irradiation. ATM autophosphorylation, phosphorylation of p53 at serine 15 and the transcriptional induction of p21/WAF1 mRNA were reduced, and there was no evidence for Ser343 phosphorylation of NBS1 in RAD50 defi cient cells following irradiation. These defects could be complemented by expression of wildtype RAD50 cDNA. Our data shows that RAD50 modulates, like NBS1 and MRE11, the ATM-mediated DNA damage response and the G1/S cell cycle checkpoint. In addition, RAD50 appears to be required for nuclear localization of MRE11, and for NBS1 focus formation, underlining its importance for the proper function of the NMR complex. Owing to the studies performed within the framework of this thesis, RAD50 deficiency can now be added to the growing list of human caretaker gene syndromes with pronounced radiosensitivity that is distinctive at both the cellular and the clinical level from deficiencies involving the other members of the NMR complex.
Interleukin-5 (IL-5) is a member of the hematopoietic class I cytokines and is specifically involved in eosinophil activation. IL-5 plays an important role in disease conditions such as allergic asthma and other hypereosinophilias, which are characterized by highly increased levels of eosinophils in peripheral blood and tissues. The IL-5 receptor is a heterodimer consisting of a binding alpha subunit (IL- 5Rα) and a common beta subunit (IL-5Rβ). This IL-5Rβ is shared with the IL-3 and GM-CSF receptors. The IL-5Rα is required for ligand-specific binding, whereas the association of the IL-5Rβ subunit triggers intracellular signal transduction. Previous studies have described the crystallographic structure of human IL-5 (hIL-5), as well as that of the common IL-5Rβ chain (IL-5Rβc) However, no experimental structural data are yet available for the interaction of the high-affinity IL-5 receptor IL-5Rα with its ligand IL-5. Therefore, this thesis had the principle objective to gain new insights into the basis of this important agonist-receptor interaction. In particular, data on the recombinant expression, purification and preparation of the binary complex of hIL-5 bound to the receptor ectodomain of hIL-5Rα are shown, as well as the subsequent crystal structure analysis of the binary ligand-receptor (hIL-5Rα/hIL-5) complex. Both proteins were expressed in an Escherichia coli expression system, purified to homogeneity, and crystallized. However, since the initial analysis of these crystals did not show any X-ray diffraction, each step of the preparation and crystallization procedure had to be stepwise optimized. Several improvements proved to be crucial for obtaining crystals suitable for structure analysis. A free cysteine residue in the N-terminal domain of the hIL-5Rα ectodomain protein was mutated to alanine to remove protein heterogeneity. In addition, hIL-5 affinity chromatography of the receptor protein proved to be absolutely crucial for crystal quality. Additive screening using the initial crystallization condition finally yielded crystals of the binary complex, which diffracted to 2.5Å resolution and were suitable for structure analysis. The preliminary structure data demonstrate a new receptor architecture for the IL-5Rα ligand-binding domain, which has no similarities to other cytokine class I receptor structures known so far. The complex structure demonstrates that the ligand-binding region of human IL-5Rα is dispersed over all three extracellular domains, and adopts a binding topology in which the cytokine recognition motif (CRM) needs the first Fn-III domain of the human IL-5Rα to bind the ligand. In a second project, a prokaryotic expression system for murine IL-5 (mIL-5) was established to allow the production of mIL-5 and mIL-5 antagonist that should facilitate functional studies in mice. Since the expression of mIL-5 in E. coli had never been successful so far, a fusion protein system was generated expressing high yields of mIL-5. Chemical cleavage with cyanogen bromide (CNBr) was used to release mIL-5 monomers, which were subsequently purified and refolded. This technique yielded an active murine IL-5 dimer as confirmed by TF-1 cell proliferation assays. The protein was crystallized and the structure of mIL-5 could be determined at 2.5Å resolution. The molecular structure revealed a symmetrical left-handed four helices bundle dimer similar to human IL-5. Analysis of the structure-/function relationship allowed us to design specific mIL-5 antagonist molecules, which are still under examination. Taken together, these findings provide further insights in the IL-5 and IL-5R interaction which may help to further understand and depict this and other cytokine-receptor interactions of similar architecture, e.g. the IL-13 ligand-receptor system. Ultimately, this may represent another piece of puzzle in the attempts to rationally design and engineer novel IL-5-related pharmacological therapeutics.
In the present study a knockout mouse model of the Popeye domain containing gene 2 (Popdc2) was generated and functionally characterized. The Popdc2 null mutants were viable with an apparent normal life span. ß-galactosidase staining to visualize the expression of the Popdc2-LacZ transgene revealed the presence of the Popdc2 in heart, bladder, smooth and skeletal muscles. In the heart LacZ was found to be present in cardiac myocytes with elevated levels in the myocytes of the cardiac conduction system. Holter ECGs records of the heart function of the 8 months (but not in 3 and 6 months) old mutant and WT littermates revealed a pronounced sinus bradycardia in the mutant mice in response to three different stress regimens: isoproterenol infusion, mental stress and a physical exercise. Histological examination of the Popdc2 null mutants SAN revealed structural alterations as was detected by HCN4 staining. Moreover, volume measurements using 3-D reconstructions of serial sections stained with HCN4 antibody revealed a volume reduction of about 30% in the mutant SAN. Taken together data presented in this study suggest that the Popdc2 KO mouse line may serve as an animal model of human sick sinus syndrome. In the second part of this thesis the Popdc2 gene promoter was analyzed. Three transcription factors binding sites were predicted in the promoter region and characterized.
The Ras/RAF/MEK/ERK cascade is a central cellular signal transduction pathway involved in cell proliferation, differentiation, and survival where RAF kinases are pivotal kinases implicated in cancer. The development of specific irreversible kinase inhibitors is a rewarding but difficult aim. CI-1033 was developed to irreversibly inhibit erbB receptor tyrosine kinases by reacting to the Cys113 residue (p38alpha MAP kinase numbering) of the kinase domain. In this study we tried a similar approach to target the RAF oncoproteins which posses a similar cysteine at position 108 in the hinge region between the small n-lobe and the large c-lobe of the kinase domain. A novel synthetic approach including a lyophilization step allowed us the synthesis of a diphenyl urea compound with an epoxide moiety (compound 1). Compound 1 possessed inhibitory activity in vitro. However our time kinetics experiments and mass spectroscopic studies clearly indicate that compound 1 does not react covalently with the cysteine residue in the hinge region. Moreover, in cell culture experiments, a strong activation of the RAF signaling pathway was observed, an effect which is known from several other RAF kinase inhibitors and is here reported for the first time for a diphenyl urea compound, to which the clinically used unspecific kinase inhibitor BAY 43-9006 (Sorafinib, Nexavar) belongs. Although activation was apparently independent on B- and C-RAF hetero-oligomerization in vitro, in vivo experiments support such a mechanism as the activation did not occur in starved knockout cells lacking either B-RAF or C-RAF. Furthermore, we developed a mathematical model of the Ras/RAF/MEK/ERK cascade demonstrating how stimuli induce different signal patterns and thereby different cellular responses, depending on cell type and the ratio between B-RAF and C-RAF. Based on biochemical data for activation and dephosphorylation, we set up differential equations for a dynamical model of the Ras/RAF/MEK/ERK cascade. We find a different signaling pattern and response result for B-RAF (strong activation, sustained signal) and C-RAF (steep activation, transient signal). We further support the significance of such differential modulatory signaling by showing different RAF isoform expression in various cell lines and experimental testing of the predicted kinase activities in B-RAF, C-RAF as well as mutated versions. Additionally the effect of the tumor suppressor DiRas3 (also known as Noey2 or ARHI) on RAF signaling was studied. I could show that DiRas3 down-regulates the mitogenic pathway by inhibition of MEK, a basis for a refined model of the Ras/RAF/MEK/ERK cascade.
Many arthropods and vertebrates can cling to surfaces using adhesive pads on their legs. These pads are either smooth and characterised by a specialised, soft cuticle or they are hairy, i.e. densely covered with flexible adhesive setae. Animals climbing with adhesive organs are able to control attachment and detachment dynamically while running. The detailed mechanisms of how tarsal pads generate adhesive and frictional forces and how forces are controlled during locomotion are still largely unclear. The aim of this study was to clarify the attachment mechanism of smooth adhesive pads as present in many insects and tree frogs. To understand the function of these fluid-based adhesive systems, I characterized their performance under standardized conditions. To this end, experiments were conducted by simultaneously measuring adhesion, friction, and contact area in single adhesive pads. The first result of this study showed that friction in stick insect attachment pads is anisotropic: Attachment pads regularly detached when slid away from the body. Further analyses of "immobilized" arolia revealed that this anisotropy is not caused by an increased shear stress in the proximal direction, but by the instability of the tarsus when pushed distally. In the second part of this study, I analysed the role of the pad secretion present in insects and tree frogs. In stick insects, shear stress was largely independent of normal force and increased with velocity, seemingly consistent with the viscosity effect of a continuous fluid film. However, measurements of the remaining force two minutes after a sliding movement showed that adhesive pads could sustain considerable static friction in insects and tree frogs. Repeated sliding movements and multiple consecutive pull-offs of stick insect single legs to deplete adhesive secretion showed that on a smooth surface, friction and adhesion strongly increased with decreasing amount of fluid in insects. In contrast, stick insect pull-off forces significantly decreased on a rough substrate. Thus, the secretion does not generally increase attachment but does so only on rough substrates, where it helps to maximize contact area. When slides with stick insect arolia were repeated at one position so that secretion could accumulate, sliding shear stress decreased but static friction remained clearly present. This suggests that static friction in stick insects, which is biologically important to prevent sliding, is based on non-Newtonian properties of the adhesive emulsion rather than on a direct contact between the cuticle and the substrate. % Analogous measurements in toe pads of tree frogs showed that they are also able to generate static friction, even though their pads are wetted by mucus. In contrast to the mechanism proposed for insects, static friction in tree frogs apparently results from the very close contact of toe pads to the substrate and boundary lubrication. In the last section of this study, I investigated adhesive forces and the mode of detachment by performing pull-off measurements at different velocities and preloads. These experiments showed that preload has only an increasing effect on adhesion for faster pull-offs. This can be explained by the viscoelastic material properties of the stick insect arolium, which introduce a strong rate-dependence of detachment. During fast pull-offs, forces can spread over the complete area of contact, leading to forces scaling with area. In contrast, the pad material has sufficient time to withdraw elastically and peel during slow detachments. Under these conditions the adhesive force will concentrate on the circumference of the contact area, therefore scaling with a length, supporting models such as the peeling theory. The scaling of single-pad forces supported these conclusions, but large variation between pads of different stick insects did not allow statistically significant conclusions. In contrast, when detachment forces were quantified for whole insects using a centrifuge, forces scaled with pad contact area and not with length.
Vertebrate and invertebrate visual systems exhibit similarities in early stages of visual processing. For instance, in the human brain, the modalities of color, form and motion are separately processed in parallel neuronal pathways. This basic property is also found in the fly Drosophila melanogaster which has a similar division in color- sensitive and (color blind) motion-sensitive pathways that are determined by two distinct subsets of photoreceptors (the R1-6 and the R7/8 system, respectively). Flies have a highly organized visual system that is characterized by its repetitive, retinotopic organization of four neuropils: the lamina, the medulla, the lobula and the lobula plate. Each of these consists of columns which contain the same set of neurons. In the lamina, axon bundles of six photoreceptors R1-6 that are directed towards the same point in space form columnar structures called cartridges. These are the visual sampling units and are associated with four types of first-order interneuron that receive common input from R1-6: L1, L2, L3 and the amacrine cells (amc, together with their postsynaptic partner T1). They constitute parallel pathways that have been studied in detail at the anatomical level. Little is known, however, about their functional role in processing behaviorally relevant information, e.g. for gaze stabilization, visual course control or the fixation of objects. The availability of a variety of neurogenetic tools for structure-function analysis in Drosophila allowed first steps into the genetic dissection of the neuronal circuitry mediating motion and position detection. In this respect, the choice of the effector turned out to be crucial. Surprisingly, it was found that the clostridial tetanus neurotoxin failed to block mature Drosophila photoreceptor synapses, but caused irreversible damage when expressed during their development. Therefore, the dominant-negative shibire allele shits1 which turned out to be better suited was used for blocking lamina interneurons and thereby analyzing the necessity of the respective pathways. To determine whether the latter were also sufficient for the same behavioral task, the inverse strategy was developed, based on the fact that lamina interneurons express histamine receptors encoded by the ort gene. The specific rescue of ort function in defined channels in an otherwise mutant background allowed studying their sufficiency in a given task. Combining these neurogenetic methods with the optomotor response and object induced orientation behavior as behavioral measures, the aim of the present thesis was to answer the following questions: (a) Which pathways feed into elementary motion detectors and which ones are necessary and/or sufficient for the detection of directional motion? (b) Do pathways exist which specifically mediate responses to unidirectional motion? (c) Which pathways are necessary and/or sufficient for object induced orientation behavior? Some basic properties of the visual circuitry were revealed: The two central cartridge pathways, represented by the large monopolar cells L1 and L2, are key players in motion detection. Under a broad range of stimulatory conditions, the two subsystems are redundant and are able to process motion independently of each other. To detect an impairment when only one of the pathways is intact, one has to drive the system to its operational limits. At low signal to noise ratios, i.e. at low pattern contrast or low background illumination, the L2 pathway has a higher sensitivity. At intermediate pattern contrast, both pathways are specialized in mediating responses to unidirectional motion of opposite stimulus direction. In contrast, neither the L3, nor the amc/T1 pathway is necessary or sufficient for motion detection. While the former may provide position information for orientation, the latter has a modulatory role at intermediate pattern contrast. Orientation behavior turned out to be even more robust than motion vision and may utilize a less sophisticated mechanism, as it does not require a nonlinear comparison of signals from neighboring visual sampling units. The position of objects is processed in several redundant pathways, involving both receptor subsystems. The fixation of objects does not generally require motion vision. However, motion detection improves the fixation of landmarks, especially when these are narrow or have a reduced contrast.
Aggression is a strikingly multi-faceted phenomenon occurring in vertebrates as well as in invertebrates. Despite its omnipresence, the neuronal basis of aggressive behaviours is yet barely understood. Many studies however, imply a role for biogenic amines in aggression. This PhD project aimed at contributing to the understanding of the neuronal correlates of aggression, with a main focus on the biogenic amine octopamine, using Drosophila melanogaster as the model system. In Drosophila, agonistic encounters of males and females are composed of a variety of both offensive and defensive components, some of which are displayed more often in one sex than in the other. To simplify analysis and to standardize evaluation, I chose to focus on a single indicator of aggression: the lunge, a striking feature unique to Drosophila male aggression. By evaluating the lunge I developed in cooperation with Andreas Eckart for the first time an automated, video-based analysis of Drosophila male aggression. The present software program gives the number of lunges for each fly in a certain time interval. In addition, it provides information such as the distance the fly walked and his size among others. In combination with a second software program that we developed, aggressive interactions between two male Drosophila melanogaster of a genotype of choice can now be registered either completely automatically or if preferred semi-automatically. Using these softwares, I demonstrate that (1) body size differences of 8% and higher influence the outcome of a fight in favour of the larger male; (2) walking activity alters lunge frequency with more lunges performed by more active pairs of males; (3) flies mutant for the white gene, one member of the ABC transporter family in Drosophila, are profoundly impaired in aggression, an effect that is partially due to reduced visual performance. (4) Either knocking-down white in various brain regions or chemically ablating the mushroom body located in the central brain by deleting its neuroblast precursors diminishes aggression, indicating that integrity of various neural circuits/brain regions is required for wild-type aggression to occur. Furthermore, I show that (5) flies lacking octopamine signalling but having altered tyramine signalling display hardly any lunge. A quantitative high-speed analysis revealed that lunge execution is almost indistinguishable from wild-type males. The results from the experiments in which octopamine levels and/or tyramine levels were restored suggest that an elaborate pattern of octopamine levels in time and space is required to enable flies to express wild-type aggressive behaviour.
Neural crest cells and sensory neurons are two prominent cell populations which are induced at the border between neural and non-neural ectoderm during early vertebrate development. The neural crest cells are multipotent and highly migratory precursors that give rise to face cartilage, peripheral neurons, glia cells, pigment cells and many other cell types unique to vertebrates. Sensory neurons are located dorsally in the neural tube and are essential for sensing and converting environmental stimuli into electrical motor reflexes. In my PhD thesis, I obtained novel insights into the complex processes of cell induction at the neural plate border by investigating the regulation and function of mdkb in zebrafish. First, it was possible to demonstrate that mdkb expression is spatiotemporally correlated with the induction of neural crest cells and primary sensory neurons at the neural plate border. Second, it became evident that the expression of mdkb is activated by known neural crest cell inducing signals, like Wnts, FGFs and RA, but that it is independent of Delta-Notch signals essential for lateral inhibition. Knockdown experiments showed that mdkb function is necessary for induction of neural crest cells and sensory neurons at the neural plate border, probably through determination of a common pool of progenitor cells during gastrulation. The present study also used the advantages of the zebrafish model system to investigate the in vivo function of all midkine gene family members during early brain development. In contrast to the situation in mouse, all three zebrafish genes show distinct expression patterns throughout CNS development. mdka, mdkb and ptn expression is detected in mostly non-overlapping patterns during embryonic brain development in the telencephalon, the mid-hindbrain boundary and the rhombencephalon. The possibility of simultaneously knocking down two or even three mRNAs by injection of morpholino mixtures allowed the investigation of functional redundancy of midkine factors during brain formation. Knockdown of Midkine proteins revealed characteristic defects in brain patterning indicating their association with the establishment of prominent signaling centers such as the mid-hindbrain boundary and rhombomere 4. Interestingly, combined knockdown of mdka, mdkb and ptn or single knockdown of ptn alone prevented correct formation of somites, either by interfering with the shifting of the somite maturation front or interferance with cell adhesion in the PSM. Thus, Ptn was identified as a novel secreted regulator of segmentation in zebrafish.
B cells play diverse roles in the immunopathogensis of autoimmune diseases several approaches targeting B cell directly or indirectly are in clinical practice in the treatment of autoimmunity. In this regard, temporal B cell depletion by rituximab (anti CD20 antibody) is being appreciated and gaining more importance in recent years. To date, little is known about the regeneration profile of B cells following B cell depletion. We wanted to investigate the early replenishing B cells and examine the dynamic changes in the repertoire. we studied the immunoglobulin receptor (IgR) modulation of Ig-VH4 genes as representative of the heavy chain family. Five patients were included in the study and therapy induced alterations were assessed. Three time points namely before therapy, early regeneration phase (ERP- the early time point during regeneration where just above 1% B cells were found in the peripheral lymphocyte pool) and later regeneration phase (LRP- which commenced 2-3 months following ERP) were chosen. In three patients (A-C), Ig-VH4 genes were amplified from total genomic DNA during the above-mentioned all time points and in another two patients (D and E), Ig genes during ERP were studied by single cell amplification technique. Firstly, B cell regeneration followed the characteristic regeneration pattern as reported by several groups, with a predominant circulation of CD38hi expressing plasma cells and immature B cells in the ERP. During LRP, the proportion of these cells reduced relatively and the levels of naïve B cells rose gradually. On a molecular level, Ig-VH4 variable gene usage prior and post B cell depletion was determined and it was noticed that a diverse set of Ig-VH4 genes were employed in the repertoire before and after therapy. Mini gene segments such as VH4-34 and VH-4-39, which were reported to be connected with autoimmunity, were over expressed in the B cell repertoire before therapy. Profound changes were noticed in the early reemerging repertoire with a relatively increased population of intensely mutated B cells. These B cells acquired >=9 mutations in the Ig genes. Immunophenotyping with specific surface markers revealed that these highly mutated B cells evolve from the isotype-switched memory compartment especially the plasma cells. To support the hypothesis that the highly mutated B cells observed during ERP were plasma cells we carried out single cell amplification of individual plasma cells in another two patients during ERP and compared the mutational load, which remained similar. Actually plasma cells do not express CD20 on their surface and are not eliminated by rituximab therapy. However they were not observed in the peripheral blood following B cell depletion. The earliest time point when plasma cells are found again in peripheral circulation is the early recovery period (ERP). Therefore, it was intriguing to ascertain if the plasma cells were also modulated by rituximab therapy although they were not directly targeted by the therapy. We investigated if there is a therapy mediated mutational modulation of the plasma cells though these are not directly targeted by the therapy. We examined the confinement of mutations to the pre-defined RGYW/WRCY hotspot motifs (R=purine, Y=pyrimidine, W=A/T) in the plasma cells, which provides information on the involvement of T cells in B cell somatic hypermutation (SHM). Plasma cells before rituximab manifested the characteristics of active disease, which was revealed by restricted mutational targeting to the RGYW/WRCY motifs. The reemerging plasma cells during ERP had an increased targeting of the RGYW/WRCY motifs which indicated for a more pronounced T cell mediated B cell mutations which is the scenario observed in the healthy subjects. To further support the hypothesis of rituximab-mediated plasma cell modulation, we delineated the replacement to silent mutations ratio (R/S) in the hypervariable regions (CDRs) of the plasma cell Ig sequences. Within our study, the mean R/S ratio in the plasma cell CDRs of the patient group was relatively low (1.87) before rituximab treatment and interestingly this ratio increased significantly in the recirculating plasma cells to values of 2.67 and 3.60 in ERP and LRP status respectively. The increase in R/S ratios in reemerging plasma cells can be interpreted as a shaping of the Ig-repertoire by positive antigen selection as seen in healthy individuals. To conclude, our study demonstrates temporal B cell depletion by rituximab therapy seems to modulate also the plasma cell compartment, which is not directly targeted by the therapy. Modulation of plasma cells in RA could be also used as a potential biomarker in studying the effective response in RA treatment. This needs to be further explored to gain deeper insights into the underlying processes, which may be influenced by future therapies.