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γ-Aminobutyric acid type A receptors (GABAARs) and glycine receptors (GlyRs) are the major mediators of fast synaptic inhibition in the central nervous system. For proper synaptic function their precise localization and exact concentration within the neuronal surface membrane is essential. These properties are mediated by scaffolding proteins which directly contact the large intracellular loops of the receptors and tether them to cytoskeletal elements of the neuronal cells. In my thesis I deciphered the molecular details of several underlying protein-protein interactions, namely the interaction of a subset of GABAAR and GlyR subunits with the scaffolding proteins gephyrin, radixin and collybistin. I determined short linear motifs within the large intracellular loops of the receptors that directly engage in subunit specific scaffold protein interactions. My quantitative binding studies revealed that gephyrins E domain primarily recognizes the GABAAR α1 (Kd = 17 M) and α3 (Kd = 5 M) subunits, in contrast, the SH3 domain of collybistin mainly interacts with the GABAAR α2 subunit (Kd = 1 µM), while the FERM domain of radixin tightly binds to the GABAAR α5 subunit (Kd = 8 µM). My work additionally demonstrated that this simple relationship is complicated by (i) missing or (ii) overlapping binding specificities between the scaffold proteins and the receptor subunits. Moreover, this thesis addressed the possibility of (iii) posttranslational negative regulation as well as amplification generated by (iv) avidity effects as summarized below. (i) First, using biochemical methods I mapped the radixin-GABAAR α5 interaction in detail. My structural analysis and competition assays suggest that radixin mediates the receptor subunit binding via a universal binding site within the F3 subdomain of its FERM domain. This binding site is formed by an α-helix that offers a large hydrophobic pocket, which accepts a variety of different hydrophobic residues adopting different conformations, and a β-strand that readily engages in peptide backbone interactions. Not surprisingly, this binding site has been implicated in a wide variety of different scaffold interactions, thus emphasizing the importance of the essential FERM activation mechanism described earlier and suggesting additional pathways to allow tight regulation of this interaction. (ii) Next, I analyzed in detail the process of gephyrin-mediated GABAAR clustering. My X-ray crystallographic studies and binding assays revealed that gephyrin mediates binding of the GABAAR α1, α2 and α3 subunit via a universal binding site that also mediates the interactions with the GlyR β subunit. Using structure-guided mutagenesis I identified key residues within gephyrin and the receptor subunits that act as major contributors to the overall binding strength. Namely, two conserved aromatic residues within the N-terminal half of the receptor binding region engage in crucial hydrophobic interactions with gephyrin. Accordingly, J. Mukherjee from the group of our collaborator Steven J. Moss verified a substantial decrease in GABAAR cluster number and size in primary hippocampal neurons upon exchange of these residues within the GABAAR α2 subunit. Extension of my studies to collybistin (CB) revealed an overlapping but reciprocal subunit preference for this protein in comparison to gephyrin. The GABAAR α3 subunit exclusively binds gephyrin, in contrast the GABAAR α1 subunit mainly targets gephyrin (Kd = 17 µM) but additionally displays a moderate affinity (Kd ≈ 400 µM) towards the SH3 domain of CB. The GABAAR α2 subunit binds tightly to the SH3 domain of CB (Kd = 1 µM) and additionally displays a weak gephyrin affinity (Kd ≈ 500 µM). Notably, I could exclude the possibility of synergistic effects between gephyrins E domain, the SH3 domain of CB and the GABAAR α2 subunit. Instead, I found that the GABAAR α2 subunit binds gephyrin and CB in a mutually exclusive manner. These results suggest that CBs role in receptor clustering is solely determined by competing binding events of its constituting domains. Namely, the intra-molecular association between the PH/DH domain and the SH3 domain within CB competes with different inter-molecular interactions of CB: GABAAR α2 binding to the SH3 domain, PIP2 binding to the PH domain and gephyrin presumably binding to the PH and DH domain of CB. (iii) Interestingly, the receptor motifs, which have been mapped in my thesis to directly interact with the scaffold proteins, were shown in earlier studies to be posttranslationally modified in vivo. In particular, the GABAAR α1 and GlyR β subunits have been implicated as targets of the ERK/MAPK and PKC phosphorylation-pathways, respectively, while the GABAAR α5 subunit motif was shown to be ubiquitinated. In this dissertation, I analyzed Thr348, a possible ERK phosphorylation site within GABAAR α1. My binding assays verified a severe reduction of the direct gephyrin binding strength upon introduction of the respective phosphomimetic residue. The relevance of this in vitro result was highlighted by J. Mukherjee who confirmed a significant reduction in GABAAR cluster number and size upon introduction of the same mutation. The ERK/MAPK pathway is therefore a promising candidate for regulation of GABAergic transmission. (iv) In vivo, gephyrin presumably forms a multivalent scaffold, which is based on the self-association of its G (GephG) and E domains (GephE). Given the multimeric nature of gephyrin and the pentameric receptor architecture, I tested the possibility of avidity in the clustering of inhibitory neurotransmitter receptors. Cocrystallization of selected minimum peptides with GephE and their crystal structure analyses enabled me to define a receptor-derived peptide that offers a maximized gephyrin affinity. The structure of the GephE-GlyR receptor complex reveals two receptor-binding sites in close spatial vicinity (15 Å). I therefore designed bivalent peptides that enable to target both GephE sites at the same time and, as expected, a variety of biophysical methods verified an avidity-potentiated and unmatched high gephyrin affinity for these bidentate compounds. Notably, I could extend the dimerization approach to low affinity gephyrin ligands, namely short GABAAR-derived peptides that could not be studied using conventional monomeric ligands. Additionally, I verified that this compound specifically targets GephEs receptor binding site, and that it thereby inhibits its receptor binding activity. Further development of this molecule may offer the possibility to specifically analyze the effect of uncoupling the gephyrin-receptor interaction in cell culture-based assays, without altering protein function or expression level that accompanies conventional methods such as protein knock-out, RNA interference or the usage of antibodies.
In this study we have investigated the possible role of c-Jun and it’s activation by the JNK pathway in neuronal cell death and in the inflammatory response of activated astrocytes. The first part of this thesis focuses on the role of site specific phosphorylation of c-Jun in neuronal cell death. The second part focuses on the function of c-Jun in LPS-mediated activation of Bergmann glia cells.
In the nervous system, activation of c-Jun transcription factor by different isoforms of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) functions in various cellular programs, including neurite outgrowth, repair and apoptosis. Yet, the regulatory mechanism underlying the functional dichotomy of c-Jun remains to be elucidated. Serine (S) 63/73 and threonine (T) 91/93 of c-Jun are the target phosphorylation sites for JNKs in response to various stimuli. Yet, these two groups of phosphorylation sites are differentially regulated in vivo, as the S63/73 sites are promptly phosphorylated upon JNK activation, whereas T91/93 phosphorylation requires a priming event at the adjacent T95 site. In our study, we used cerebellar granule cell (CGC) apoptosis by trophic/potassium (TK) deprivation as a model system to investigate the regulation and function of site-specific c-Jun phosphorylation at the S63 and T91/T93 JNK-sites in neuronal cell death. In this model system, JNK induces pro-apoptotic genes through the c-Jun/Ap-1 transcription factor. On the other side, a survival pathway initiated by lithium leads to repression of pro-apoptotic c-Jun/Ap-1 target genes without interfering with JNK activity. Yet, the mechanism by which lithium inhibits c-Jun activity remains to be elucidated. We found that TK-deprivation led to c-Jun phosphorylation at all three JNK sites. However, immunofluorescence analysis of c-Jun phosphorylation at single cell level revealed that the S63 site was phosphorylated in all c-Jun-expressing cells, whereas the response of T91/T93 phosphorylation was more sensitive, mirroring the switch-like apoptotic response of cerebellar granular cells (CGCs). Furthermore, we observed that lithium impaired c-Jun phosphorylation at T91/93, without interfering with S63/73 phosphorylation or JNK activation, suggesting that T91/T93 phosphorylation triggers c-Jun pro-apoptotic activity. Notably, expression of a c-Jun mutant lacking the T95-priming site for T91/93 phosphorylation (c-Jun A95) mimicked the effect of lithium on both cell death and c-Jun site-specific phosphorylation, whereas it was fully able to induce neurite outgrowth in naïve PC12 cells. Vice-versa, a c-Jun mutant bearing aspartate-substitution of T95 overwhelmed lithium-mediate protection of CGCs from TK-deprivation, validating that inhibition of T91/T93/T95 phosphorylation underlies the effect of lithium on cell death. Mass-spectrometry analysis confirmed that c-Jun is phosphorylation at T91/T93/T95 in cells. Moreover, recombinant-JNK phosphorylated c-Jun at T91/T93 in a T95-dependent manner. Based on our results, we propose that T91/T93/T95 phosphorylation of c-Jun functions as a sensitivity amplifier of the JNK cascade, setting the threshold for c-Jun pro-apoptotic activity in neuronal cells.
In the central nervous system (CNS), the c-Jun transcription factor has been mainly studied in neuronal cells and coupled to apoptotic and regenerative pathways following brain injury. Besides, several studies have shown a transcriptional role of c-Jun in activated cortical and spinal astrocytes. In contrast, little is known about c-Jun expression and activation in Bergmann glial (BG) cells, the radial cerebellar astrocytes playing crucial roles in cerebellar development and physiology. In this study, we used neuronal/glial cerebellar cultures from neonatal mice to assess putative functions of c-Jun in BG cells. By performing double immunocytochemical staining of c-Jun and two BG specific markers, S100 and GLAST, we observed that c-Jun was highly expressed in radial glial cells derived from Bergmann glia. Bergmann glia-derived cells expressed toll-like receptor (TLR 4) and treatment with bacterial lipopolysaccharide (Le et al.) induced c-Jun phosphorylation at S63, exclusively in BG cells. Moreover, LPS induced IL-1β expression and inhibition of JNK activity abolished both c-Jun phosphorylation and the increase of IL-1β mRNA. Notably, we also observed that LPS failed to induce IL-1β mRNA in neuronal/glial cerebellar cultures generated from conditional knockout mice lacking c-Jun expression in the CNS. These results indicate that c-Jun plays a central role in c-Jun in astroglial-specific induction of IL-1β. Furthermore, we confirmed in vivo that c-Jun is expressed in BG cells, during the formation of the BG monolayer. Altogether, our finding underlines a putative role of c-Jun in astroglia-mediated neuroinflammatory dysfunctions of the cerebellum.
Thrombus formation at sites of vascular lesions is a dynamic process that requires a defined series of molecular events including the action of platelet adhesion/activation receptors, intracellular signal transduction, cytoskeletal rearrangements and activation of plasma coagulation factors. This process is essential to limit post-traumatic blood loss but may also contribute to acute thrombotic diseases such as myocardial infarction and stroke. With the help of genetically modified mice and the use of specific protein inhibitors and receptordepleting antibodies, the work presented in this thesis identified novel mechanisms underlying thrombus formation in hemostasis and thrombosis. In the first part of the study, it was shown that von Willebrand Factor (vWF) binding to glycoprotein (GP)Iba is critical for the formation of stable pathological thrombi at high shear rates, suggesting GPIba as an attractive pharmacological target for antithrombotic therapy. The subsequent analysis of recently generated phospholipase (PL)D1-deficient mice identified this enzyme, whose role in platelet function had been largely unknown, as a potential target protein downstream of GPIba. This was based on the finding that PLD1- deficient mice displayed severely defective GPIba-dependent thrombus stabilization under high shear conditions in vitro and in vivo without affecting normal hemostasis. The second part of the thesis characterizes the functional relevance of the immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motif (ITAM)-bearing collagen receptor GPVI and the recently identified hemITAM-coupled C-type lectin-like receptor 2 (CLEC-2) for in vivo thrombus formation. Genetic- and antibody-induced GPVI deficiency was found to similarly protect mice from arterial vessel occlusion in three different thrombosis models. These results confirmed GPVI as a promising antithrombotic target and revealed that antibody-treatment had no obvious off-target effects on platelet function. Similarly, immunodepletion of CLEC-2 by treating mice with the specific antibody INU1 resulted in markedly impaired thrombus growth and stabilization under flow in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, it could be demonstrated that double-immunodepletion of GPVI and CLEC-2 resulted in severely decreased arterial thrombus formation accompanied by dramatically prolonged bleeding times. These data revealed an unexpected redundant function of the two receptors for in vivo thrombus formation and might have important implications for the potential development of anti-GPVI and anti-CLEC-2 antithrombotic agents. The third part of the thesis provides the first functional analysis of megakaryocyte- and platelet-specific RhoA knockout mice. RhoA-deficient mice displayed a defined signaling defect in platelet activation, leading to a profound protection from arterial thrombosis andand ischemic brain infarction, but at the same time also strongly increased bleeding times. These findings identified the GTPase as an important player for thrombus formation in hemostasis and thrombosis. Based on the previous proposal that the coagulation factor (F)XII might represent an ideal target for safe antithrombotic therapy without causing bleeding side effects, the last part of this thesis assesses the antithrombotic potential of the newly generated FXIIa inhibitor rHAInfestin- 4. It was found that rHA-Infestin-4 injection into mice resulted in virtually abolished arterial thrombus formation but no change in bleeding times. Moreover, rHA-Infestin-4 was similarly efficient in a murine model of ischemic stroke, suggesting that the inhibitor might be a promising agent for effective and safe therapy of cardio- and cerebrovascular diseases.
In their natural environment animals face complex and highly dynamic olfactory input. This requires fast and reliable processing of olfactory information, in vertebrates as well as invertebrates. Parallel processing has been shown to improve processing speed and power in other sensory systems like auditory or visual. In the olfactory system less is known about olfactory coding in general and parallel processing in particular. With its elaborated olfactory system and due to their specialized neuroanatomy, honeybees are well-suited model organism to study parallel olfactory processing. The honeybee possesses a unique neuronal architecture - a dual olfactory pathway. Two mirror-imaged output projection neuron (PN) pathways connect the first olfactory processing stage, the antennal lobe (analog to the vertebrates olfactory bulb, OB), with the second, the mushroom body (MB) known to be involved in orientation and learning and memory, and the lateral horn (LH). The medial antennal lobe-protocerebral tract (m-APT) first innervates the MB and thereafter the LH, while the other, the lateral-APT (l-APT) projects in opposite direction. The neuroanatomy and evolution of these pathways has been analyzed, yet little is known about its physiology. To analyze the function of the dual olfactory pathway a new established recording method was designed and is described in the first chapter of this thesis (multi-unit-recordings). This is now the first time where odor response from several PNs of both tracts is recorded simultaneously and with high temporal precision. In the second chapter the PN odor responses are analyzed. The major findings are: both tracts responded to all tested odors but with differing characteristics. Since recent studies describe the input to the two tracts being rather similar, the results now indicate differential odor processing along the tracts, therefore this is a good indicator for parallel processing. PNs of the m-APT process odors in a sparse manner with delayed response latencies, but with high odor-specificity. PNs of the l-APT in contrast respond to several odor stimuli and respond in general faster. In some PN originating from both tracts, characteristics of odor-identity coding via response latencies were found. Analyzing the over-all dynamic range of the PNs both l- and m-APT PNs were tested over a large odor concentration range (10-6 to 10-2) (3. chapter). The PNs responded with linear and non-linear correlation of the response strength to the odor concentration. In most cases the l-APT is comparatively more sensitive to low odor concentrations. Response latency decreases with increasing odor concentration in both tracts. Alternative coding principles and elaboration on the hypothesis whether the dual olfactory pathway may contribute coincidental innervation to the next higher-order neurons, the Kenyon cells (KC), is subject of the 4. chapter. Cross-correlations and synchronous responses of both tracts show that in principle odors may be coded via temporal coding. Results suggest that odor processing is enhanced if both tracts contribute to olfactory coding together. In another project the distribution of the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) was measured in the bee’s MB during adult maturation (5. chapter). GABAergic inhibition is of high importance in odor coding. An almost threefold decrease in the total amount of GABAergic innervation was found during adult maturation in the l- and m-APT target region, in particular at the change in division of labor during the transition from a young nurse bee to an older forager bee. The results fit well into the current understanding of brain development in the honeybee and other social insects during adult maturation, which was described as presynaptic pruning and KC dendritic outgrowth. Combining anatomical and functional properties of the bee’s dual olfactory pathway suggests that both rate and temporal coding are implemented along two parallel streams. Comparison with recent work on analog output pathways of the vertebrate’s OB indicates that parallel processing of olfactory information may be a common principle across distant taxa.
Scientific surveys provide sufficient evidence that anxiety disorders are one of the most common psy-chiatric disorders in the world. The lifetime prevalence rate of anxiety disorder is 28.8% (Kessler, et al., 2005). The most widely studied anxiety disorders are as follows panic disorder (PD), post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), social phobia (or social anxiety disorder), specific phobias, and generalized anxiety disorder (GAD). (NIMH Article, 2009). Classical conditioning is the stable paradigm used from the last one century to understand the neurobi-ology of fear learning. Neurobiological mechanism of fear learning is well documented with the condi-tioning studies. In the therapy of anxiety disorders, exposure based therapies are known to be the most effective approaches. Flooding is a form of exposure therapy in which a participant is exposed to the fear situation and kept in that situation until their fear dissipates. The exposure therapy is based on the phenomena of extinction; this means that a conditioned response diminishes if the conditioned stimulus (CS) is repeatedly presented without an unconditioned stimulus (UCS). One problem with extinction as well as with exposure-based therapy is the problem of fear return (for e.g. renewal, spontaneous recov-ery and reinstatement) after successful extinction. Therefore, extinction does not delete the fear memory trace. It has been well documented that memory processes can be modulated or disrupted using several sci-entific paradigms such as behavioral (for e.g. exposure therapy), pharmacological (for e.g. drug manipu-lation), non-invasive stimulation (for e.g. non-invasive stimulation such as electroconvulsive shock (ECS), transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), etc. However, modulation of memory processes after reactivation or via non-invasive stimulation is still not clear, which is the focus of the current study. In addition, study of genetic variant suggests that genetic differences play a vital role in the psychiatric disorder especially in fear learning. Hence, it is also one of the concerns of the current dissertation to investigate the interaction between gene and reconsolidation of memory. With respect to fear-conditioning, there are three findings in the current dissertation, which are as fol-lows: (i) In the first study we investigated that non-invasive weak electrical stimulation interferes with the consolidation process and disrupts the fear consolidation to attain stable form. This might offer an effective treatment in the pathological memories, for e.g. PTSD, PD, etc. (ii) In the second study we demonstrated whether a brief single presentation of the CS will inhibit the fear recovery. Like earlier studies we also found that reactivation followed by reconsolidation douses fear return. Attenuation of fear recovery was observed in the reminder group compared to the no-reminder group. (iii) Finally, in our third study we found a statistically significant role of brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) polymorphism in reconsolidation. Results of the third study affirm the involvement of BDNF variants (Met vs. Val) in the modulation of conditioned fear memory after its reactivation. In summary, we were able to show in the current thesis modulation of associative learning and recon-solidation via transcranial direct current stimulation and genetic polymorphism.
Bone Morphogenetic Proteins (BMPs) are key regulators for a lot of diverse cellular processes. During embryonic development these proteins act as morphogens and play a crucial role particularly in organogenesis. BMPs have a direct impact on distinct cellular fates by means of concentration-gradients in the developing embryos. Using the diverse signaling input information within the embryo due to the gradient, the cells transduce the varying extracellular information into distinct gene expression profiles and cell fate decisions. Furthermore, BMP proteins bear important functions in adult organisms like tissue homeostasis or regeneration. In contrast to TGF-ß signaling, currently only little is known about how cells decode and quantify incoming BMP signals. There is poor knowledge about the quantitative relationships between signal input, transducing molecules, their states and location, and finally their ability to incorporate graded systemic inputs and produce qualitative responses. A key requirement for efficient pathway modulation is the complete comprehension of this signaling network on a quantitative level as the BMP signaling pathway, just like many other signaling pathways, is a major target for medicative interference. I therefore at first studied the subcellular distribution of Smad1, which is the main signal transducing protein of the BMP signaling pathway, in a quantitative manner and in response to various types and levels of stimuli in murine c2c12 cells. Results indicate that the subcellular localization of Smad1 is not dependent on the initial BMP input. Surprisingly, only the phospho-Smad1 level is proportionally associated to ligand concentration. Furthermore, the activated transducer proteins were entirely located in the nucleus. Besides the subcellular localization of Smad1, I have analyzed the gene expression profile induced by BMP signaling. Therefore, I examined two endogenous immediate early BMP targets as well as the expression of the stably transgenic Gaussia Luciferase. Interestingly, the results of these independent experimental setups and read-outs suggest oscillating target gene expression. The amplitudes of the oscillations showed a precise concentration-dependence for continuous and transient stimulation. Additionally, even short-time stimulation of 15’ activates oscillating gene-expression pulses that are detectable for at least 30h post-stimulation. Only treatment with a BMP type I receptor kinase inhibitor leads to the complete abolishment of the target gene expression. This indicated that target gene expression oscillations depend directly on BMP type I receptor kinase activity.
Dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) represents an important subgroup of patients suffering from heart failure. The disease is supposed to be associated with autoimmune mechanisms in about one third of the cases. In the latter patients functionally active conformational autoantibodies directed against the second extracellular loop of the β1-adrenergic receptor (AR, β1ECII-aabs) have been detected. Such antibodies chronically stimulate the β1-AR thereby inducing the adrenergic signaling cascade in cardiomyocytes, which, in the long run, contributes to heart failure progression. We analyzed the production of cAMP after aab-mediated β1-AR activation in vitro using a fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) assay. This assay is based on HEK293 cells stably expressing human β1-AR as well as the cAMP-sensor Epac1-camps. The assay showed a concentration-dependent increase in intracellular cAMP upon stimulation with the full agonist (-) isoproterenol. This response was comparable to results obtained in isolated adult murine cardiomyocytes and was partially blockable by a selective β1-AR antagonist. In the same assay poly- and monoclonal anti-β1ECII-abs (induced in different animals) could activate the adrenergic signaling cascade, whereas isotypic control abs had no effect on intracellular cAMP levels. Using the same method, we were able to detect functionally activating aabs in the serum of heart failure patients with ischemic and hypertensive heart disease as well as patients with DCM, but not in sera of healthy control subjects. In patients with DCM we observed an inverse correlation between the stimulatory potential of anti-β1-aabs and left ventricular pump function. To adopt this assay for the detection of functionally activating anti-β1ECII-aabs in clinical routine we attempted to establish an automated large-scale approach. Neither flow cytometry nor FRET detection with a fluorescence plate reader provided an acceptable signal-to-noise ratio. It was possible to detect (-) isoproterenol in a concentration-dependent manner using two different FRET multiwell microscopes. However, due to focus problems large-scale detection of activating anti-β1ECII-abs could not be implemented. Neutralization of anti-β1-aabs with the corresponding epitope-mimicking peptides is a possible therapeutic approach to treat aab-associated autoimmune DCM. Using our FRET assay we could demonstrate a reduction in the stimulatory potential of anti-β1ECII-abs after in vitro incubation with β1ECII-mimicking peptides. Cyclic (and to a lesser extent linear) peptides in 40-fold molar excess acted as efficient ab-scavengers in vitro. Intravenously injected cyclic peptides in a rat model of DCM also neutralized functionally active anti-β1ECII-abs efficiently in vivo. For a detailed analysis of the receptor-epitope targeted by anti-β1ECII-abs we used sequentially alanine-mutated β1ECII-mimicking cyclic peptides. Our data revealed that the disulfide bridge between the cysteine residues C209 and C215 of the human β1-AR appears essential for the formation of the ab-epitope. Substitution of further amino acids relevant for ab-binding in the cyclic scavenger peptide by alanine reduced its affinity to the ab and the receptor-activating potential was blocked less efficiently. In contrast, the non-mutant cyclic peptide almost completely blocked ab-induced receptor activation. Using this ala-scan approach we were able to identify a “NDPK”-epitope as essential for ab binding to the β1ECII. In summary, neutralization of conformational activating anti-β1ECII-(a)abs by cyclic peptides is a plausible therapeutic concept in heart failure that should be further exploited based on the here presented data.
Stimulatory or superagonistic (SA) CD28-specific monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) are potent polyclonal activators of regulatory T cells and have proven highly effective as treatment in a wide range of rodent models for autoimmune and inflammatory diseases. In these models, a preferential activation of regulatory T cells was observed by in vivo administration of CD28SA. In stark contrast, human volunteers receiving TGN1412, a humanized CD28-specific mAb, experienced a life-threatening cytokine release syndrome during the first-in-man trial. Preclinical tests employing human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) failed to announce the rapid cytokine release measured in the human volunteers in response to TGN1412. The aim of this thesis project was to find an explanation of why standard PBMC assays failed to predict the unexpected TGN1412-induced "cytokine storm" observed in human volunteers. CD28 superagonists can activate T cells without T cell receptor (TCR) ligation. They do depend, however, on “tonic” TCR signals received by MHC scanning, signals that they amplify. PBMC do not receive these signals in the circulation. Short-term in vitro preculture of human PBMC at a high cell density (HDC) resulted in massive cytokine release during subsequent TGN1412 stimulation. Restoration of reactivity was cell-contact dependent, associated with TCR polarization and tyrosine-phosphorylation, and blocked by HLA-specific mAb. In HDC, both CD4 T cells and monocytes functionally mature in a mutually dependent fashion. However, only CD4 memory T-cells proliferate upon TGN1412 stimulation, and were identified as the main source of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Importantly, responses to other T-cell activating agents were also enhanced if PBMC were first allowed to interact under tissue-like conditions. A new in vitro protocol is provided that returns circulating T-cells to a tissue-like status where they respond to TGN1412 stimulation, and it might represent a more reliable preclinical in vitro test for both activating and inhibitory immunomodulatory drugs. Finally, the surprising observation was made that the IgG1 “sibling” of TGN1412, which is of the poorly Fc receptor-binding IgG4 isotype, has a much lower stimulatory activity. We could exclude steric hindrance as an explanation and provide evidence for removal of TGN1112 from the T-cell surface by trans-endocytosis.
b-adrenergic receptors (b-ARs) participate strongly in the development of cardiac hypertrophy and human heart failure. Stimulation of b-adrenergic receptors with catecholamines as well as cardiac overexpression of b1-ARs or of Gas-proteins in transgenic mice induces cardiac hypertrophy. However, direct activation of their downstream targets, such as adenylyl cyclase (AC) or protein kinase A do not promote a significant degree of cardiac hypertrophy. These findings suggest that additional events may occur and that these events require Gas-protein activation. A hypertrophic pathway involving Gaq-protein coupled receptors has recently been described. Upon activation of Gaq-coupled receptors Gbg-subunits are released from Gaq and bind directly to the activated Raf/Mek/Erk cascade. Direct interaction between bg-subunits and activated Erk1/2 leads to an additional autophosphorylation of Erk2 at threonine 188, which mediates cardiac hypertrophy. Murine hearts, as well as isolated cardiomyocytes present an increase in Erk2Thr188-phosphorylation upon b-AR activation. Similarly overexpression of phosphorylation deficient Erk2 mutants (Erk2T188S and Erk2T188A) reduces b-AR mediated cardiomyocyte hypertrophy. Increase in left ventricular wall thickness, fibrosis and up-regulation of natriuretic peptide synthesis, which are physiological features for cardiac hypertrophy, are strongly inhibited in transgenic mice with a cardiac expression of Erk2T188S after two weeks of sustained isoproterenol treatment. It could further be shown in this work that b-AR mediated cardiac hypertrophy requires two distinct pathways initiated by Gs-protein activation: the canonical phosphorylation of Erk1/2 via adenylyl cyclase and the direct interaction of released bg-subunits with activated Erk1/2. Coincidence of both events leads to Erk2Thr188-phosphorylation, which activates then different transcription factors responsible for cardiac hypertrophy. Sequestration of bg-subunits by overexpression of the C-terminus of GRK2 bark-ct and inhibition of adenylyl cyclase efficiently reduced the hypertrophic response to isoproterenol, whereas direct activation of AC by forskolin failed to induce Erk2Thr188-phosphorylation and cardiomyocyte hypertrophy. These findings may help to develop new therapeutic strategies for the prevention of cardiac hypertrophy and maladaptive remodeling of the heart.
Platelet activation and aggregation are essential to limit posttraumatic blood loss at sites of vascular injury, but also contribute to arterial thrombosis, leading to myocardial infarction and stroke. Thrombus formation is the result of well-defined molecular events, including agonist-induced elevation of intracellular calcium ([Ca2+]i) and series of cytoskeletal rearrangements. With the help of genetically modified mice, the work presented in this thesis identified novel mechanisms underlying the process of platelet activation in hemostasis and thrombosis. Store-operated calcium entry (SOCE) through Orai1 was previously shown to be the main Ca2+ influx pathway in murine platelets. The residual Ca2+ entry in the Orai1 deficient platelets suggested a role for additional non-store-operated Ca2+ (non-SOC) and receptor operated Ca2+ entry (ROCE) in maintaining platelet calcium homeostasis. Canonical transient receptor potential channel 6 (TRPC6), which is expressed in both human and murine platelets, has been attributed to be involved in SOCE as well as in diacylglycerol (DAG)-triggered ROCE. In the first part of the study, the function of TRPC6 in platelet Ca2+ signaling and activation was analyzed by using the TRPC6 knockout mice. In vitro agonist induced Ca2+ responses and in vivo platelet function were unaltered in Trpc6-/- mice. However, Trpc6-/- mice displayed a completely abolished DAG mediated Ca2+-influx but a normal SOCE. These findings identified TRPC6 as the major DAG operated ROC channel in murine platelets, but DAG mediated ROCE has no major functional relevance for hemostasis and thrombosis. In the second part of the thesis, the involvement of the PDLIM family member CLP36 in the signaling pathway of the major platelet collagen receptor glycoprotein (GP) VI was investigated. The GPVI/FcR-chain complex initiates platelet activation through a series of tyrosine phosphorylation events downstream of the FcR-chain-associated immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motif (ITAM). GPVI signaling has to be tightly regulated to prevent uncontrolled intravascular platelet activation, but the underlying mechanisms are not fully understood. The present study reports the adaptor protein CLP36 as a major inhibitor of GPVI-ITAM signaling in platelets. Platelets from mice expressing a truncated form of CLP36, (Clp36ΔLIM) and platelets from mice lacking the entire protein (Clp36-/-) displayed profound hyper-activation in response to GPVI-specific agonists, whereas GPCR signaling pathways remained unaffected. These alterations translated into accelerated thrombus formation and enhanced pro-coagulant activity of Clp36ΔLIM platelets and a pro-thrombotic phenotype in vivo. These studies revealed an unexpected inhibitory function of CLP36 in GPVI-ITAM signaling and established it as a key regulator of arterial thrombosis.