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Spatial presence is a state in which media users temporarily overlook the mediated nature of their experience.
This study discusses stimulus-dependent structure in spontaneous eye-blink behavior as analternative to presence selfreport measures. To this end, theories and empirical evidence on presence, spontaneous eye-blink behavior, and existing approaches for presence assessment are used to link antecedent processes of presence, especially attention, to presence and structure in blinking behavior.
Three experiments in different media environments relate three different methods for quantification of stimulus-dependent structure to an established presence scale. The results are not conclusive, but raise questions on presence and its measurement, and advance the understanding of stimulus-dependent structure in spontaneous eye-blink behavior.
Manifestations of aggressive driving, such as tailgating, speeding, or swearing, are not trivial offenses but are serious problems with hazardous consequences—for the offender as well as the target of aggression. Aggression on the road erases the joy of driving, affects heart health, causes traffic jams, and increases the risk of traffic accidents. This work is aimed at developing a technology-driven solution to mitigate aggressive driving according to the principles of Persuasive Technology. Persuasive Technology is a scientific field dealing with computerized software or information systems that are designed to reinforce, change, or shape attitudes, behaviors, or both without using coercion or deception.
Against this background, the Driving Feedback Avatar (DFA) was developed through this work. The system is a visual in-car interface that provides the driver with feedback on aggressive driving. The main element is an abstract avatar displayed in the vehicle. The feedback is transmitted through the emotional state of this avatar, i.e., if the driver behaves aggressively, the avatar becomes increasingly angry (negative feedback). If no aggressive action occurs, the avatar is more relaxed (positive feedback). In addition, directly after an aggressive action is recognized by the system, the display is flashing briefly to give the driver an instant feedback on his action.
Five empirical studies were carried out as part of the human-centered design process of the DFA. They were aimed at understanding the user and the use context of the future system, ideating system ideas, and evaluating a system prototype. The initial research question was about the triggers of aggressive driving. In a driver study on a public road, 34 participants reported their emotions and their triggers while they were driving (study 1). The second research question asked for interventions to cope with aggression in everyday life. For this purpose, 15 experts dealing with the treatment of aggressive individuals were interviewed (study 2). In total, 75 triggers of aggressive driving and 34 anti-aggression interventions were identified. Inspired by these findings, 108 participants generated more than 100 ideas of how to mitigate aggressive driving using technology in a series of ideation workshops (study 3). Based on these ideas, the concept of the DFA was elaborated on. In an online survey, the concept was evaluated by 1,047 German respondents to get a first assessment of its perception (study 4). Later on, the DFA was implemented into a prototype and evaluated in an experimental driving study with 32 participants, focusing on the system’s effectiveness (study 5). The DFA had only weak and, in part, unexpected effects on aggressive driving that require a deeper discussion.
With the DFA, this work has shown that there is room to change aggressive driving through Persuasive Technology. However, this is a very sensitive issue with special requirements regarding the design of avatar-based feedback systems in the context of aggressive driving. Moreover, this work makes a significant contribution through the number of empirical insights gained on the problem of aggressive driving and wants to encourage future research and design activities in this regard.
With the continuous development of artificial intelligence, there is an effort to let the expressed mind of robots resemble more and more human-like minds. However, just as the human-like appearance of robots can lead to feelings of aversion to such robots, recent research has shown that the apparent mind expressed by machines can also be responsible for their negative evaluations. This work strives to explore facets of aversion evoked by machines with human-like mind (uncanny valley of mind) within three empirical projects from a psychological point of view in different contexts, including the resulting consequences.
In Manuscript #1, the perspective of previous work in the research area is reversed and thus shows that humans feel eeriness in response to robots that can read human minds, a capability unknown from human-human interaction. In Manuscript #2, it is explored whether empathy for a robot being harmed by a human is a way to alleviate the uncanny valley of mind. A result of this work worth highlighting is that aversion in this study did not arise from the manipulation of the robot’s mental capabilities but from its attributed incompetence and failure. The results of Manuscript #3 highlight that status threat is revealed if humans perform worse than machines in a work-relevant task requiring human-like mental capabilities, while higher status threat is linked with a higher willingness to interact, due to the machine’s perceived usefulness.
In sum, if explanatory variables and concrete scenarios are considered, people will react fairly positively to machines with human-like mental capabilities. As long as the machine’s usefulness is palpable to people, but machines are not fully autonomous, people seem willing to interact with them, accepting aversion in favor of the expected benefits.
Costly signaling with mobile devices: An evolutionary psychological perspective on smartphones
(2016)
In the last decade, mobile device ownership has largely increased. In particular, smartphone ownership is constantly rising (A. Smith, 2015; Statista, 2016a), and there is a real hype for luxury brand smartphones (Griffin, 2015). These observations raise the question of which functions smartphones serve in addition to their original purposes of making and receiving calls, searching for information, and organizing. Beyond these obvious functions, studies suggest that smartphones express fashion, lifestyle, and one’s economic status (e.g., Bødker et al., 2009; Statista, 2016b; Vanden Abeele, Antheunis, & Schouten, 2014). Specifically, individuals seem to purchase and use conspicuous luxury brand smartphones to display and enhance status (D. Kim et al., 2014; Müller-Lietzkow et al., 2014; Suki, 2013). But how does owning a conspicuous, high-status smartphone contribute to status, and which benefits may these status boosts provide to their owners? From an evolutionary perspective, status carries a lot of advantages, particularly for males; high status grants them priority access to resources and correlates with their mating success (van Vugt & Tybur, 2016). In this sense, research suggests that men conspicuously display their cell phones to attract mates and to distinguish themselves from rivals (Lycett & Dunbar, 2000). In a similar vein, evolutionarily informed studies on conspicuous consumption indicate that the purchase and display of conspicuous luxuries (including mobile phones and smartphones) relate to a man’s interest in uncommitted sexual relationships and enhance his desirability as a short-term mate (Hennighausen & Schwab, 2014; Saad, 2013; Sundie et al., 2011). Drawing on these findings, this doctoral dissertation investigated how a man is perceived given that he is an owner of a high-status (vs. nonconspicuous, low-status) smartphone as a romantic partner and male rival. This was done in three experiments. In addition, it was examined how male conspicuous consumption of smartphones interacted with further traits that signal a man’s mate quality, namely facial attractiveness (Studies 1 and 2) and social dominance (Study 3). Study 1 revealed that men and women perceived a male owner of a conspicuous smartphone as a less desirable long-term mate and as more inclined toward short-term mating. Study 2 replicated these results and showed that men and women assigned traits that are associated with short-term mating (e.g., low loyalty, interest in flirts, availability of tangible resources) to a male owner of a conspicuous smartphone and perceived him as a stronger male rival and mate poacher, and less as a friend. The results of Study 2 further suggested that specifically more attractive men might benefit from owning a conspicuous smartphone in a short-term mating context and might be hence considered as stronger male rivals. Study 3 partially replicated the findings of Studies 1 and 2 pertaining to the effects of owning a conspicuous smartphone. Study 3 did not show different effects of conspicuous consumption of smartphones on perceptions of a man dependent on the level of his social dominance.
To conclude, the findings of this doctoral dissertation suggest that owning a conspicuous, high-status smartphone might not only serve proximate functions (e.g., making and receiving calls, organization) but also ultimate functions, which relate to mating and reproduction. The results indicate that owning a conspicuous smartphone might yield benefits for men in a short-term rather than in a long-term mating context. Furthermore, more attractive men appear to benefit more from owning a conspicuous smartphone than less attractive men. These findings provide further insights into the motivations that underlie men’s purchases and displays of conspicuous, high-status smartphones from luxury brands that reach beyond the proximate causes frequently described in media and consumer psychological research. By applying an evolutionary perspective, this doctoral dissertation demonstrates the power and utility of this research paradigm for media psychological research and shows how combining a proximate and ultimate perspective adds to a more profound understanding of smartphone phenomena.
For formative evaluations of user experience (UX) a variety of methods have been developed over the years. However, most techniques require the users to interact with the study as a secondary task. This active involvement in the evaluation is not inclusive of all users and potentially biases the experience currently being studied. Yet there is a lack of methods for situations in which the user has no spare cognitive resources. This condition occurs when 1) users' cognitive abilities are impaired (e.g., people with dementia) or 2) users are confronted with very demanding tasks (e.g., air traffic controllers). In this work we focus on emotions as a key component of UX and propose the new structured observation method Proxemo for formative UX evaluations. Proxemo allows qualified observers to document users' emotions by proxy in real time and then directly link them to triggers. Technically this is achieved by synchronising the timestamps of emotions documented by observers with a video recording of the interaction.
In order to facilitate the documentation of observed emotions in highly diverse contexts we conceptualise and implement two separate versions of a documentation aid named Proxemo App. For formative UX evaluations of technology-supported reminiscence sessions with people with dementia, we create a smartwatch app to discreetly document emotions from the categories anger, general alertness, pleasure, wistfulness and pride. For formative UX evaluations of prototypical user interfaces with air traffic controllers we create a smartphone app to efficiently document emotions from the categories anger, boredom, surprise, stress and pride. Descriptive case studies in both application domains indicate the feasibility and utility of the method Proxemo and the appropriateness of the respectively adapted design of the Proxemo App.
The third part of this work is a series of meta-evaluation studies to determine quality criteria of Proxemo. We evaluate Proxemo regarding its reliability, validity, thoroughness and effectiveness, and compare Proxemo's efficiency and the observers' experience to documentation with pen and paper. Proxemo is reliable, as well as more efficient, thorough and effective than handwritten notes and provides a better UX to observers. Proxemo compares well with existing methods where benchmarks are available.
With Proxemo we contribute a validated structured observation method that has shown to meet requirements formative UX evaluations in the extreme contexts of users with cognitive impairments or high task demands. Proxemo is agnostic regarding researchers' theoretical approaches and unites reductionist and holistic perspectives within one method.
Future work should explore the applicability of Proxemo for further domains and extend the list of audited quality criteria to include, for instance, downstream utility. With respect to basic research we strive to better understand the sources leading observers to empathic judgments and propose reminisce and older adults as model environment for investigating mixed emotions.
The impact of stories in their ability to shape our view on the world has long been a central topic in communication science and media psychology. While reading a book or watching a movie, we are transported into story worlds and we identify with depicted protagonists. Several studies showed that high levels of transportation lead to greater story-consistent beliefs. Similar effects were found for identification. However, much less is known how and in which direction stories could affect the self. Five experimental studies were conducted and summarized in three manuscripts. Manuscript #1 explored the moderating role of transportation that could shift one’s self-perception towards traits of a depicted story character (assimilation) or away from him/her (contrast). Manuscript #2 focused on downward social comparisons with a protagonist and possible contrast effects on participants’ self-perception in relation to others, their motives and behavior. Thereby, the mediating role of transportation and identification were investigated. Finally, upward social comparison with a protagonist and related emotions (e.g., envy) that mediate possible effects on one’s self perception and behavioral intentions were investigated in manuscript #3.
This dissertation project contributes to the literature on stories and the self. Consistent with previous work, assimilation effects were found for highly transported recipients. However, stories might also elicit contrast effects on recipients’ selves and behavioral intentions that are opposite to a depicted character. Extending prior research, there were evidence that transportation and envy are important process variables explaining assimilation vs. contrast effects.
Using color in user interface design is both art and science. Often, designers focus on aesthetic properties of color, but neglect that it also carries meaning and entails profound psychological consequences. Color psychology, filling this gap, is in its infancy, and lacks a theoretical approach that predicts and explains color-meaning associations shared by a large group of people in a large variety of contexts.
To amend this situation, this work develops Conceptual Metaphor Theory of Color (CMToC), which predicts and explains cross-cultural and experience-based semantic color associations. The theory is based on the idea from cognitive linguistics that the study of metaphorical language provides valuable insights into our mental models involving color. A discussion of three types of metaphors that cover associations with physical and abstract concepts in light of existing empirical evidence provides the basis for deriving empirical research questions.
The first research question addresses the use of color for conveying physical information like weight in user interfaces. The results of four online surveys involving a total of 295 German and Japanese participants show the relative impact of hue, saturation and brightness for associations with 16 physical properties. Two thirds of these color associations were correctly predicted by CMToC. Participants frequently matched physical properties to colors based on sensorimotor correspondences and participants of both cultures did not considerably vary in their performance.
The second research question addresses the use of color for conveying abstract information like importance in user interfaces. In one experimental study, a total of 75 German and Japanese participants validated color-to-abstract mappings in form of color population stereotypes like important is dark. The majority of these color associations (86%) were correctly predicted by CMToC. Again, participants of both cultures did not considerably vary in their performance.
The third research question addresses whether predicted color associations with physical and abstract information are processed automatically as a precondition for intuitive use. The results of three studies involving a total of 85 German and Japanese participants show on the example of temperature that color automatically influences the identification speed of related physical properties, but not vice versa. Color and abstract information were not automatically associated.
As a result of these studies it can be concluded that predictions of CMToC are cross-culturally valid for user interface design. Derived implicit associations with physical properties and explicit associations with abstract concepts can inform design decisions in both hard- and software user interface design.
The rising use of new media has given rise to public discussions about their possible negative consequences. The social sciences have answered these concerns, providing many studies investigating different media types (e.g., social media, video games) and different related variables (e.g., psychological well-being, academic achievement). Within this big body of research, some research results have confirmed negative associations with frequent media use; other studies have found no or even positive relationships. With heterogeneous results, it is difficult to obtain a clear picture of the relationships and causalities of new media. The method of meta-analysis allows a synthesis of all existing data, providing an overall effect size as well as moderator and mediator analyses which might explain the heterogeneity. Three manuscripts present meta-analytic evidence related to a) the relationship between social media use and academic achievement, b) the relationship between video gaming and overweight, and c) the relationship between social media and psychological correlates. Manuscript #1 found small relationships which depend on the usage pattern of social media. The relationship is positive, as long as social media use is related to school. Manuscript #2 showed that children’s and adolescents’ video gaming is independent from their body mass, while adults who play more have a higher body mass. Manuscript #3 summarized existing meta-analytic evidence that links social media with psychological wellbeing, academic achievement, and narcissism with small to moderate effect sizes. All three manuscripts underscore the potential of meta-analyses to synthesize previous research and to identify moderators. Although meta-analyses are not necessarily superior to other approaches because of their limitations (e.g. limited information or quality of primary studies) they are very promising for media psychology. Meta-analyses can reduce complexity and might be helpful for the communication of research results to the general public.
Affective states in the context of learning and achievement can influence the learning process essentially. The impact of affective states can be both directly on the learning performance and indirectly mediated via, for example, motivational processes. Positive activating affect is often associated with increased memory skills as well as advantages in creative problem solving. Negative activating affect on the other hand is regarded to impair learning outcomes because of promoting task-irrelevant thinking. While these relationships were found to be relatively stable in correlation studies, causal relationships have been examined rarely so far. This dissertation aims to investigate the effects of positive and negative affective states in multimedia learning settings and to identify potential moderating factors. Therefore, three experimental empirical studies on university students were conducted. In Experiment 1, N = 57 university students were randomly allocated to either a positive or negative affect induction group. Affects were elicited using short film clips. After a 20-minute learning phase in a hypertext-based multimedia learning environment on “functional neuroanatomy” the learners’ knowledge as well as transfer performance were measured. It was assumed that inducing positive activating affect should enhance learning performance. Eliciting negative activating affect on the other hand should impair learning performance. However, it was found that the induction of negative activating affect prior to the learning phase resulted in slight deteriorations in knowledge. Contrary to the assumptions, inducing positive activating affect before the learning phase did not improve learning performance. Experiment 2 induced positive activating affect directly during learning. To induce affective states during the entire duration of the learning phase, Experiment 2 used an emotional design paradigm. Therefore, N = 111 university students were randomly assigned to learn either in an affect inducing multimedia learning environment (use of warm colours and round shapes) or an affectively neutral counterpart (using shades of grey and angular shapes) on the same topic as in Experiment 1. Again, knowledge as well as transfer performance were measured after learning for 20 minutes. In addition, positive and negative affective states were measured before and after learning. Complex interaction patterns between the treatment and initial affective states were found. Specifically, learners with high levels of positive affect before learning showed better transfer performance when they learned in the affect inducing learning environment. Regarding knowledge, those participants who reported high levels of negative activating affect prior to the learning period performed worse. However, the effect on knowledge did not occur for those students learning in the affect inducing learning environment. For knowledge, the treatment therefore protected against poorer performance due to high levels of negative affective states. Results of Experiment 2 showed that the induction of positive activating affect influenced learning performance positively when taking into account affective states prior to the learning phase. In order to confirm these interaction effects, a conceptual replication of the previous experiment was conducted in Experiment 3. Experiment 3 largely retained the former study design, but changed the learning materials and tests used. Analogous to Experiment 2, N = 145 university students learning for 20 minutes in either an affect inducing or an affectively neutral multimedia learning environment on “eukaryotic cell”. To strengthen the treatment, Experiment 3 also used anthropomorphic design elements to induce affective states next to warm colours and round shapes. Moreover, in order to assess the change in affective states more exactly, an additional measurement of positive and negative affective states after half of the learning time was inserted. Knowledge and transfer were assessed again to measure learning performance. The learners’ memory skills were used as an additional learning outcome. To control the influence of potential confounding variables, the participants’ general and current achievement motivation as well as interest, and emotion regulation skills were measured. Contrary to the assumptions, Experiment 3 could not confirm the interaction effects of Experiment 2. Instead, there was a significant impact of positive activating affect prior to the learning phase on transfer, irrespective of the learners’ group affiliation. This effect was further independent of the control variables that were measured. Nevertheless, the results of Experiment 3 fit into the picture of findings regarding “emotional design” in hypermedia learning settings. To date, the few publications that have used this approach propose heterogeneous results, even when using identical materials and procedures.
Computer games are highly immersive, engaging, and motivating learning environments. By providing a tutorial at the start of a new game, players learn the basics of the game's underlying principles as well as practice how to successfully play the game. During the actual gameplay, players repetitively apply this knowledge, thus improving it due to repetition. Computer games also challenge players with a constant stream of new challenges which increase in difficulty over time. As a result, computer games even require players to transfer their knowledge to master these new challenges. A computer game consists of several game mechanics. Game mechanics are the rules of a computer game and encode the game's underlying principles. They create the virtual environments, generate a game's challenges and allow players to interact with the game. Game mechanics also can encode real world knowledge. This knowledge may be acquired by players via gameplay. However, the actual process of knowledge encoding and knowledge learning using game mechanics has not been thoroughly defined, yet. This thesis therefore proposes a theoretical model to define the knowledge learning using game mechanics: the Gamified Knowledge Encoding. The model is applied to design a serious game for affine transformations, i.e., GEtiT, and to predict the learning outcome of playing a computer game that encodes orbital mechanics in its game mechanics, i.e., Kerbal Space Program. To assess the effects of different visualization technologies on the overall learning outcome, GEtiT visualizes the gameplay in desktop-3D and immersive virtual reality. The model's applicability for effective game design as well as GEtiT's overall design are evaluated in a usability study. The learning outcome of playing GEtiT and Kerbal Space Program is assessed in four additional user studies. The studies' results validate the use of the Gamified Knowledge Encoding for the purpose of developing effective serious games and to predict the learning outcome of existing serious games. GEtiT and Kerbal Space Program yield a similar training effect but a higher motivation to tackle the assignments in comparison to a traditional learning method. In conclusion, this thesis expands the understanding of using game mechanics for an effective learning of knowledge. The presented results are of high importance for researches, educators, and developers as they also provide guidelines for the development of effective serious games.