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We earlier established a model of a persistent viral CNS infection using two week old immunologically normal (genetically unmodified) mice and recombinant measles virus (MV). Using this model infection we investigated the role of regulatory T cells (Tregs) as regulators of the immune response in the brain, and assessed whether the persistent CNS infection can be modulated by manipulation of Tregs in the periphery. CD4\(^+\) CD25\(^+\) Foxp3\(^+\) Tregs were expanded or depleted during the persistent phase of the CNS infection, and the consequences for the virus-specific immune response and the extent of persistent infection were analyzed. Virus-specific CD8\(^+\) T cells predominantly recognising the H-2D(b)-presented viral hemagglutinin epitope MV-H22-30 (RIVINREHL) were quantified in the brain by pentamer staining. Expansion of Tregs after intraperitoneal (i.p.) application of the superagonistic anti-CD28 antibody D665 inducing transient immunosuppression caused increased virus replication and spread in the CNS. In contrast, depletion of Tregs using diphtheria toxin (DT) in DEREG (depletion of regulatory T cells)-mice induced an increase of virus-specific CD8\(^+\) effector T cells in the brain and caused a reduction of the persistent infection. These data indicate that manipulation of Tregs in the periphery can be utilized to regulate virus persistence in the CNS.
Myelin formation during peripheral nervous system (PNS) development, and reformation after injury and in disease, requires multiple intrinsic and extrinsic signals. Akt/mTOR signaling has emerged as a major player involved, but the molecular mechanisms and downstream effectors are virtually unknown. Here, we have used Schwann-cell-specific conditional gene ablation of raptor and rictor, which encode essential components of the mTOR complexes 1 (mTORC1) and 2 (mTORC2), respectively, to demonstrate that mTORC1 controls PNS myelination during development. In this process, mTORC1 regulates lipid biosynthesis via sterol regulatory element-binding proteins (SREBPs). This course of action is mediated by the nuclear receptor RXRg, which transcriptionally regulates SREBP1c downstream of mTORC1. Absence of mTORC1 causes delayed myelination initiation as well as hypomyelination, together with abnormal lipid composition and decreased nerve conduction velocity. Thus, we have identified the mTORC1-RXR gamma-SREBP axis controlling lipid biosynthesis as a major contributor to proper peripheral nerve function.
Murine infection models are widely used to study systemic candidiasis caused by C. albicans. Whole-blood models can help to elucidate host-pathogens interactions and have been used for several Candida species in human blood. We adapted the human whole-blood model to murine blood. Unlike human blood, murine blood was unable to reduce fungal burden and more substantial filamentation of C. albicans was observed. This coincided with less fungal association with leukocytes, especially neutrophils. The lower neutrophil number in murine blood only partially explains insufficient infection and filamentation control, as spiking with murine neutrophils had only limited effects on fungal killing. Furthermore, increased fungal survival is not mediated by enhanced filamentation, as a filament-deficient mutant was likewise not eliminated. We also observed host-dependent differences for interaction of platelets with C. albicans, showing enhanced platelet aggregation, adhesion and activation in murine blood. For human blood, opsonization was shown to decrease platelet interaction suggesting that complement factors interfere with fungus-to-platelet binding. Our results reveal substantial differences between murine and human whole-blood models infected with C. albicans and thereby demonstrate limitations in the translatability of this ex vivo model between hosts.
Peptides derived from human and bovine lactoferricin were designed, synthesized, purified, and characterized using RP-HPLC and MALDI-TOF-MS. Specific changes in the sequences were designed as (i) the incorporation of unnatural amino acids in the sequence, the (ii) reduction or (iii) elongation of the peptide chain length, and (iv) synthesis of molecules with different number of branches containing the same sequence. For each peptide, the antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli ATCC 25922 and Enterococcus faecalis ATCC 29212 was evaluated. Our results showed that Peptides I.2 (RWQWRWQWR) and I.4 ((RRWQWR)\(_{4}\)K\(_{2}\)Ahx\(_{2}\)C\(_{2}\)) exhibit bigger or similar activity against E. coli (MIC 4-33 μM) and E. faecalis (MIC 10-33 μM) when they were compared with lactoferricin protein (LF) and some of its derivate peptides as II.1 (FKCRRWQWRMKKLGA) and IV.1 (FKCRRWQWRMKKLGAPSITCVRRAE). It should be pointed out that Peptides I.2 and I.4, containing the RWQWR motif, are short and easy to synthesize; our results demonstrate that it is possible to design and obtain synthetic peptides that exhibit enhanced antibacterial activity using a methodology that is fast and low-cost and that allows obtaining products with a high degree of purity and high yield.
The current diagnostic criteria of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders are being challenged by the heterogeneity and the symptom overlap of psychiatric disorders. Therefore, a framework toward a more etiology-based classification has been initiated by the US National Institute of Mental Health, the research domain criteria project. The basic neurobiology of human psychiatric disorders is often studied in rodent models. However, the differences in outcome measurements hamper the translation of knowledge. Here, we aimed to present a translational panic model by using the same stimulus and by quantitatively comparing the same outcome measurements in rodents, healthy human subjects and panic disorder patients within one large project. We measured the behavioral–emotional and bodily response to CO\(_{2}\) exposure in all three samples, allowing for a reliable cross-species comparison. We show that CO\(_{2}\) exposure causes a robust fear response in terms of behavior in mice and panic symptom ratings in healthy volunteers and panic disorder patients. To improve comparability, we next assessed the respiratory and cardiovascular response to CO\(_{2}\), demonstrating corresponding respiratory and cardiovascular effects across both species. This project bridges the gap between basic and human research to improve the translation of knowledge between these disciplines. This will allow significant progress in unraveling the etiological basis of panic disorder and will be highly beneficial for refining the diagnostic categories as well as treatment strategies.
The Unrecognized Effects of Phosphodiesterase 4 on Epithelial Cells in Pulmonary Inflammation
(2015)
Acute pulmonary inflammation is characterized by migration of polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMNs) into the different compartments of the lung, passing an endothelial and epithelial barrier. Recent studies showed evidence that phosphodiesterase (PDE) 4-inhibitors stabilized endothelial cells. PDE4B and PDE4D subtypes play a pivotal role in inflammation, whereas blocking PDE4D is suspected to cause gastrointestinal side effects. We thought to investigate the particular role of the PDE4-inhibitors roflumilast and rolipram on lung epithelium. Acute pulmonary inflammation was induced by inhalation of LPS. PDE4-inhibitors were administered i.p. or nebulized after inflammation. The impact of PDE4-inhibitors on PMN migration was evaluated in vivo and in vitro. Microvascular permeability, cytokine levels, and PDE4B and PDE4D expression were analyzed. In vivo, both PDE4-inhibitors decreased transendothelial and transepithelial migration even when administered after inflammation, whereas roflumilast showed a superior effect compared to rolipram on the epithelium. Both inhibitors decreased TNF\(\alpha\), IL6, and CXCL2/3. CXCL1, the strong PMN chemoattractant secreted by the epithelium, was significantly more reduced by roflumilast. In vitro assays with human epithelium also emphasized the pivotal role of roflumilast on the epithelium. Additionally, LPS-induced stress fibers, an essential requirement for a direct migration of PMNs into the alveolar space, were predominantly reduced by roflumilast. Expression of PDE4B and PDE4D were both increased in the lungs by LPS, PDE4-inhibitors decreased mainly PDE4B. The topical administration of PDE4-inhibitors was also effective in curbing down PMN migration, further highlighting the clinical potential of these compounds. In pulmonary epithelial cells, both subtypes were found coexistent around the nucleus and the cytoplasm. In these epithelial cells, LPS increased PDE4B and, to a lesser extend, PDE4D, whereas the effect of the inhibitors was prominent on the PDE4B subtype. In conclusion, we determined the pivotal role of the PDE4-inhibitor roflumilast on lung epithelium and emphasized its main effect on PDE4B in hyperinflammation.
Background
Currently ketogenic diets (KDs) are hyped as an anti-tumor intervention aimed at exploiting the metabolic abnormalities of cancer cells. However, while data in humans is sparse, translation of murine tumor models to the clinic is further hampered by small sample sizes, heterogeneous settings and mixed results concerning tumor growth retardation. The aim was therefore to synthesize the evidence for a growth inhibiting effect of KDs when used as a monotherapy in mice.
Methods
We conducted a Bayesian random effects meta-analysis on all studies assessing the survival (defined as the time to reach a pre-defined endpoint such as tumor volume) of mice on an unrestricted KD compared to a high carbohydrate standard diet (SD). For 12 studies meeting the inclusion criteria either a mean survival time ratio (MR) or hazard ratio (HR) between the KD and SD groups could be obtained. The posterior estimates for the MR and HR averaged over four priors on the between-study heterogeneity τ\(^{2}\) were MR = 0.85 (95% highest posterior density interval (HPDI) = [0.73, 0.97]) and HR = 0.55 (95% HPDI = [0.26, 0.87]), indicating a significant overall benefit of the KD in terms of prolonged mean survival times and reduced hazard rate. All studies that used a brain tumor model also chose a late starting point for the KD (at least one day after tumor initiation) which accounted for 26% of the heterogeneity. In this subgroup the KD was less effective (MR = 0.89, 95% HPDI = [0.76, 1.04]).
Conclusions
There was an overall tumor growth delaying effect of unrestricted KDs in mice. Future experiments should aim at differentiating the effects of KD timing versus tumor location, since external evidence is currently consistent with an influence of both of these factors.
Biomedical research suffers from a dramatically poor translational success. For example, in ischemic stroke, a condition with a high medical need, over a thousand experimental drug targets were unsuccessful. Here, we adopt methods from clinical research for a late-stage pre-clinical meta-analysis (MA) and randomized confirmatory trial (pRCT) approach. A profound body of literature suggests NOX\(_{2}\) to be a major therapeutic target in stroke. Systematic review and MA of all available NOX\(_{2}\)\(^{-/y}\) studies revealed a positive publication bias and lack of statistical power to detect a relevant reduction in infarct size. A fully powered multi-center pRCT rejects NOX\(_{2}\) as a target to improve neurofunctional outcomes or achieve a translationally relevant infarct size reduction. Thus stringent statistical thresholds, reporting negative data and a MA-pRCT approach can ensure biomedical data validity and overcome risks of bias.
The purpose of this study was to evaluate whether spatial hippocampus-dependent learning is affected by the serotonergic system and stress. Therefore, 5-HTT knockout (-/-), heterozygous (+/-) and wildtype (+/+) mice were subjected to the Barnes maze (BM) and the Morris water maze (WM), the latter being discussed as more aversive. Additionally, immediate early gene (IEG) expression, hippocampal adult neurogenesis (aN), and blood plasma corticosterone were analyzed.
While the performance of 5-HTT-/- mice in the BM was undistinguishable from both other genotypes, they performed worse in the WM. However, in the course of the repeated WM trials 5-HTT-/- mice advanced to wildtype level. The experience of a single trial of either the WM or the BM resulted in increased plasma corticosterone levels in all genotypes. After several trials 5-HTT-/- mice exhibited higher corticosterone concentrations compared with both other genotypes in both tests. Corticosterone levels were highest in 5-HTT-/- mice tested in the WM indicating greater aversiveness of the WM and a greater stress sensitivity of 5-HTT deficient mice.
Quantitative immunohistochemistry in the hippocampus revealed increased cell counts positive for the IEG products cFos and Arc as well as for proliferation marker Ki67 and immature neuron marker NeuroD in 5-HTT-/- mice compared to 5-HTT+/+ mice, irrespective of the test. Most differences were found in the suprapyramidal blade of the dentate gyrus of the septal hippocampus. Ki67-immunohistochemistry revealed a genotype x environment interaction with 5-HTT genotype differences in naïve controls and WM experience exclusively yielding more Ki67-positive cells in 5-HTT+/+ mice. Moreover, in 5-HTT-/- mice we demonstrate that learning performance correlates with the extent of aN.
Overall, higher baseline IEG expression and increased an in the hippocampus of 5-HTT-/- mice together with increased stress sensitivity may constitute the neurobiological correlate of raised alertness, possibly impeding optimal learning performance in the more stressful WM.
Als Tiermodell ist die Maus aus der pharmazeutischen Grundlagenforschung nicht mehr wegzudenken. Aus diesem Grund nimmt besonders die Verfügbarkeit nicht invasiver Diagnoseverfahren für dieses Tiermodell einen sehr hohen Stellenwert ein. Ziel dieser Arbeit war die Entwicklung von in vivo MR-Untersuchungsmethoden zur Charakterisierung des kardiovaskulären Systems der Maus. Neben der morphologischen Bildgebung wurde ein besonderer Schwerpunkt auf die Quantifizierung funktioneller Parameter der arteriellen Gefäße wie auch des Herzens gelegt. Durch Implementieren einer PC-Cine-Sequenz mit dreidimensionaler Bewegungskodierung war es möglich, die Charakteristik der Bewegung des gesamten Myokards zu untersuchen. Die Aufnahme von Bewegungsvektoren für jeden Bildpunkt und die Bestimmung des Torsionswinkels innerhalb der Messschichten konnte die systolische Kontraktion als dreidimensionale Wringbewegung des Herzens bestätigen. Um die Qualität der morphologischen Gefäßbildgebung zu verbessern, sollte untersucht werden, inwieweit bestehende Verfahren zur Gefäßwanddarstellung optimiert werden können. Implementieren einer Multi-Schicht-Multi-Spin-Echo-Sequenz an einem 17,6 Tesla Spektrometer erlaubte durch das hohe B0-Feld einen deutlichen Signalgewinn. Erstmals wurde es möglich, die gesunde Gefäßwand darzustellen und so morphologische Veränderungen in einem möglichst frühen Zustand zu untersuchen. Neben der Untersuchung morphologischer Veränderungen sollte vor allem ein Schwerpunkt auf das Studium funktioneller Parameter der Gefäßwand gelegt werden. Dazu wurde in einem ersten Schritt mit einem PC-Cine-Verfahren die Umfangsdehnung in ihrem zeitlichen Verlauf ermittelt. Dabei zeigte sich, dass im Laufe einer arteriosklerotischen Plaqueprogression eine Änderung der Umfangsdehnung vor einer Änderung morphologischer Parameter beobachtet werden kann. Deshalb war es Ziel, im Verlauf dieser Arbeit weitere Verfahren zur Charakterisierung funktioneller Parameter des Gefäßsystems zu entwickeln. Um direkt Elastizitätsparameter ermitteln zu können, fehlt als Bezugsgröße der arterielle Pulsdruck (AP). Die Lösung der inkompressiblen Navier-Stokes-Gleichungen unter Anwendung der Lang-Wellen-Näherung und der Näherung für große Pulswellengeschwindigkeiten (PWV) erlaubte die Bestimmung der komplexen Impedanz und somit des arteriellen Pulsdrucks in der Frequenzdomäne. Dadurch war es möglich, den dynamischen Anteil des arteriellen Druckpulses direkt aus einer Messung der Pulswellengeschwindigkeit sowie aus dem Verlauf des Flusspulses zu bestimmen. Zur Ermittlung des AP muss die Pulswellengeschwindigkeit bestimmt werden. Für die MR-Bildgebung in murinen Gefäßen waren hierzu bisher keine Verfahren verfügbar. Da sich die Gefäßdehnung möglicherweise als Indikator für eine frühe Wandveränderung bei der Plaqueprogression zeigt, bestand ein großes Interesse in der Untersuchung von spezifischen gefäßmechanischen Eigenschaften wie beispielsweise der PWV. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit konnten zwei MR-Methoden für die nicht invasive Bildgebung in der Maus entwickelt werden, die es ermöglichten, die lokale und die regionale Pulswellengeschwindigkeit zu bestimmen. Die Messung der lokalen Pulswellengeschwindigkeit beruht dabei auf der zeitaufgelösten Bestimmung der Gefäßwanddehnung sowie des Blutvolumenflusses. Zur Bestimmung der regionalen Pulswellengeschwindigkeit wurde eine Erweiterung der Zwei-Punkt-Transit-Zeit-Methode verwendet. Durch zeitaufgelöste bewegungskodierte Bildgebung entlang der Aorta konnte anhand von 30 Stützpunkten die Propagation des arteriellen Flusspulses vermessen werden. Die Messzeit gegenüber einer Zwei-Punkt-Methode ließ sich dadurch halbieren. Gleichzeitig bietet die Auswertung von 30 Messpunkten eine größere Sicherheit in der Bestimmung der PWV. Beide Methoden wurden an einem elastischen Gefäßphantom validiert. In vivo Tierstudien an apoE(−/−)-Mäusen und einer Kontrollgruppe zeigten für beide Methoden eine gute Übereinstimmung. Darüber hinaus konnte ein Ansteigen der Pulswellengeschwindigkeit in apoE(−/−)-Mäusen durch arteriosklerotische Veränderungen nachgewiesen werden. Zusammenfassend wurden in dieser Arbeit grundlegende Verfahren zur Untersuchung des kardiovaskulären Systems der Maus optimiert und entwickelt. Die Vielseitigkeit der MR-Bildgebung ermöglichte dabei die Erfassung von morphologischen und funktionellen Parametern. In Kombination können die beschriebenen Methoden als hilfreiche Werkzeuge für die pharmakologische Grundlagenforschung zur Charakterisierung von Herz-Kreislauf-Erkankungen in Mausmodellen eingesetzt werden.