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This dissertation explores the local gazetteers of West Lake that were compiled by literati of the Ming dynasty. In 1547, the first West Lake gazetteer was published by the local literatus of Hangzhou, Tian Rucheng 田汝成. In the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, accompanying the huge enthusiasm for West Lake and the flourishing of its tourism, the production of West Lake gazetteers reached its peak. This trend, however, was reduced by the turmoils in the last years of the Ming and the dynastic transition, a period when West Lake had also experienced destruction. Nevertheless, the practice was resumed in the first decades of the Qing dynasty by some literati who had survived the disasters. One prominent work of this period was compiled by the Ming loyalist and “remnant subject” Zhang Dai 張岱, who wrote an author’s preface in 1671. This dissertation can be divided into two parts. The first part focuses on the editorial principles of compilers, e.g., which materials are included, how they are organized and presented. It explores various possible intentions of the compilers, such as scholarly and documentary, practical and oriented toward tour-guiding, didactic and educational, and personal and nostalgic ones. The second part focuses on some of the perceptions, attitudes, and values of literati focusing on West Lake. The discourses analyzed in this part include West Lake as a hybrid between metropolitan city and sheer wilderness, as a national symbol and object of nostalgia of the lost dynasty, and as a place of pleasure-seeking and indulgence. While a discourse often had a long tradition and historical development, the emphasis of the study is on the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, i.e., the late Ming.
The present study discusses money and conflicts and anxiety over money in late Ming vernacular stories and contextualizes these stories in the contemporary society of economic prosperity and rapid changes. The high monetization and extensive use of silver and copper cash as currency brought both wealth and conflicts in various aspects of society. Eleven vernacular stories from several collections are adopted as source materials for the close examination, including Jingshi tongyan (Stories to Caution the World, 1624) and Xingshi hengyan (Stories to Awaken the World, 1627) by Feng Menglong (1574-1646) and the two Pai’an jingqi (Slapping the Table in Amazement, 1628 and 1632) collections by Ling Mengchu (1580-1644), etc. The analysis then focuses on the relationship between money and four topics, the late Ming context, social relations, gender ideals, and religion. Multiple voices and various viewpoints in these narratives show human beings’ struggles in taming and dominating money, the increasingly familiar and essential object in everyday life. Generally, when people cannot control money properly, there is a fear of its detrimental power to humans and social relations within and beyond families. On the contrary, characters, who are able to control money, are praised.
“I tried to control my emotions”: nursing home care workers’ experiences of emotional labor in China
(2022)
Despite dramatic expansions in the Chinese nursing home sector in meeting the increasing care needs of a rapidly aging population, direct care work in China remains largely devalued and socially unrecognized. Consequently, scant attention has been given to the caregiving experiences of direct care workers (DCWs) in Chinese nursing homes. In particular, given the relational nature of care work, there is little knowledge as to how Chinese DCWs manage emotions and inner feelings through their emotional labor. This article examines the emotional labor of Chinese DCWs through ethnographic data collected with 20 DCWs in one nursing home located in an urban setting in central China. Data were analyzed using conventional content analysis and constant comparison. Participants’ accounts of sustaining a caring self, preserving professional identity, and hoping for reciprocity revealed implicit meanings about the often-conflicting nature of emotional labor and the nonreciprocal elements of care work under constrained working conditions. Importantly, the moral-cultural notion of bao (报 norm of reciprocity) was found to be central among DCWs in navigating strained resources and suggested their agency in meaning-construction. However, their constructed moral buffers may be insufficient if emotional labor continues to be made invisible by care organizations.
The present study focuses on Rulin waishi 儒林外史 (The Unofficial History of the Scholars), a well-known Qing novel, from the perspective of gender. It attempts to contribute to the discussion about Chinese masculinity by identifying the representation of the scholars' masculinity in Rulin waishi and offer a better understanding of the novel's position regarding femininity and women.
This project shows that the novel nevertheless reflects rather than challenges gender ideologies of its time. The ideal manhood showed in the novel comprises real virtues and authentic learning. It goes against the traditional, orthodox Confucian masculinity which advocates that officialdom is the glorious path to fulfill a learned man's masculinity. It is mainly due to Wu Jingzi's own failure in the civil service examinations and official careers. Regarding the relation of masculinity and sexuality, the novel reveals that a masculine man is not tempted by female charm but can enjoy a harmonious and companionate marriage. Besides, scholars show great anxiety about their masculinity since they are in a marginal position in society. Their manliness is challenged by officials, merchants, and even commoners, as well as their colleagues.
Through a careful examination of stories of Pinniang, Miss Lu, and Mrs. Wang, it reveals that the novel holds a conventional opinion on women although it criticizes widow suicide and shows an egalitarian husband-wife relationship. It praises Confucian womanly virtues, such as following and serving the husband, managing the household, and keeping chastity. Female sexuality is blamed as an evil temptation to lead men to go astray. Women’s learning gains legitimacy when serving to fulfill domestic responsibilities. It carries the Confucian message that men should take the lead and maintain order in the household and reinforces the rightful patriarchy.
In a word, rather than go ahead of its time, Rulin waishi holds a conservative attitude towards gender issues.
Singapore has a unique and proactive approach towards managing the national transport system. This article explores the integrative approach of carsharing into the overall transport system from an individual sustainable mobility perspective. The authors argue that for Singapore, taxi services are the strongest competitor for the establishment of free-floating carsharing systems. Low taxi fares and a high distribution rate provide easy access for consumers and show great advantages in correspondence with the prevalent transport measures. Furthermore, the Singaporean government considers taxi services as part of public transport that helps bridging public transportation gaps in door-to-door travel. The article draws on literature review and expert interviews to evaluate the current market conditions and analyse the pros and cons of carsharing systems and taxi services as integrated part of the public transport system. The authors conclude by stating that from a sustainable perspective, the goal is to replace private car ownership. Provision of multi modal choices and therefore co-existence of different individual transport opportunities is indispensable.
With the launch of economic reforms and the opening up in 1978, China started to catch up with the industrial nations. During the 1980s and 90s great importance was attached to the development of the science and educational sector. Development of the first Chinese intranet and connection to the internet became a key to developing science and economy. In 1987 the China Academic Network (CAnet, Zhongguo xueshu wangluo) was established. In the same year the first e-mail was sent from China to the University of Karlsruhe. Full access to the internet was gained in 1994, and it took four more years until the internet business was booming. The growth rate of internet users is tremendous, and China soon will have the largest online community in the world. In January 2008 China had about 210 million internet users, being only second to the United States with 215 million users. Analysts often forget that Chinese internet users only constitute a small percentage of the population (about 16% in December 2007). The internet penetration rate compared to countries like the USA or Japan (both above 65% in July 2007) is still very low. The internet market will grow as a large part of the population still is not connected to the worldwide web, especially in the rural areas. But it should be kept in mind that today’s surfers still represent an elite. A large proportion of internet users (about 36.2% in 2007) hold academic degrees, while persons who enjoyed tertiary education only make up for 6,22% of the populace. Besides economic aspects, western analyses often stress the aspect of censorship. Involvement of Western companies in content control and imprisonment of ‘cyber dissidents’, like Shi Tao, have been topics of discussion for a long time. Reporters Without Borders and Amnesty International have recommended China to respect its citizens’ freedom of speech. The USA, Germany and France have criticised China for its censorship policies. According to a proposal passed in February 2007 the European Union might consider internet censorship a trade barrier. This could affect future negotiations with the PRC. Literature on internet censorship in the PRC still holds the view that the Chinese government has successfully build a solid firewall, which can only be circumvented by using special software. Others hold the opinion that a system as complex as the internet cannot be censored in an effective way. As Bill Clinton put it once, trying to control the internet would be like ‘trying to nail Jello to the wall’. Some are overly enthusiastic in regard to the possible impact which the internet might have on the process of democratisation, by stressing the importance of its ‘feedback functionality’ and the influx of foreign body of thought. Imperfect control would lead to a more open public discourse, which would eventually lead to the fall of China’s authoritarian regime.The first part of the thesis will examine the status quo of internet censorship in the PRC. Mechanisms which the Chinese authorities employ to censor the web will be examined, but the focus will rest on the non-technical aspects internet censorship. It will be explored how mechanisms of censorship are becoming increasingly indirect, alongside taking a look at regulations and codes and the news monopoly of the Chinese state and its agencies, like Xinhua. The second part of the thesis will examine user’s reactions to internet censorship, how they adapt to it, and if they circumvent technical barriers, or if they are aware of the existence of internet censorship. Special attention will be paid to self-censorship and self-seduction, by taking a look at online behaviour. To better put into perspective the topic of internet censorship I will use the concept of Panopticism, mediated by Michel Foucault, as well as media theories by Chomsky and Herman. The paper is based on articles and research papers, surveys, as well as online articles and papers. Online articles are used throughout the paper because of their timeliness and availability, as the latest changes in China’s internet censorship cannot be found in traditional papers and articles.
This thesis investigates the impact of the country-of-origin effect on Chinese luxury brands which intend to enter the German luxury goods market. By means of a questionnaire and a quantitative analysis, possible threats to Chinese newcomers that derive from an unfavorable country image are illustrated. In fact, the Chinese origin of luxury goods has an impact on German consumers' perception.
Compared to other countries, China was particularly early in developing a comprehensive set of policies to promote electric mobility (e-mobility). The aim of this study is to examine how China’s e-mobility development – through changes in formal institutions as well as market forces – has affected German passenger car manufacturers and their competitive environment and positions. The study is guided by two strands of research: new institutional economics and strategic management literature. A holistic multiple-case design is used to analyze five German case study firms. Qualitative interview data are collected through interviews and analyzed using a thematic analysis. The results show that the electric transformation in China has been shaped by changes in formal institutions at the macro, meso, and micro levels. Interestingly, the case study firms were affected not only by changes in China’s formal institutions but also by disparities between institutions in China and Europe. Furthermore, the data suggest that German car manufacturers are facing an increasingly competitive environment in China: at least four forces in Porter’s five-forces model seem to have intensified in recent years. The extent to which the case study firms have been affected by these developments may depend on the industry segments in which they are positioned. However, it can be argued that the electric transition has blurred the lines between traditional segments of the car industry to some extent. The interview data do not provide evidence that any of the German car brands have substantially changed their positioning, but they do suggest that some of the case study companies did not have an adequate offering for the Chinese market at the time of the interviews. In addition, the study finds that China’s transition to e-mobility has led to changes in various parts of the German automakers’ value chains, including production, sales, marketing, services, research and development, and procurement. Whether these changes will ultimately result in competitive advantage, parity, or disadvantage remains to be seen.
China’s emerging second-tier cities attract more and more foreign companies that are looking for business opportunities. Although much has been written about companies’ internationalization strategies, including companies’ market entry decisions and market entry mode strategies, research on the relationship between a city’s degree of internationalization and foreign companies’ market entry decisions and market entry mode strategies in second-tier cities in China is still relatively scarce. Thus, the central research question of this study is: Why and how does a second-tier city’s degree of internationalization influence foreign companies’ market entry decisions and market entry mode strategies in second-tier China? This study is based on a qualitative research approach; an embedded multiple-case study is applied and interviews with two different target groups are conducted. The first target group consists of foreign companies having established business operations in China’s second-tier cities directly and have had no previous business operations in first-tier cites. The second group is made up of foreign companies that initially operated in first-tier China, and then moved to second-tier cities. The company sample compromises small- and medium-sized foreign companies with various industry backgrounds and market entry modes in Chengdu and Chongqing. Since 2015, Maxxelli has been publishing its China International City Index (CICI) on a yearly basis in which it measures and compares China’s cities’ degree of internationalization. Because Maxxelli revised this year’s CICI methodology comprehensively, this study also aims at feedback to improve the overall CICI. This study concludes that a second-tier city’s degree of internationalization is particularly important to foreign companies having first set up in Chinese first-tier cities. Companies having established themselves in second-tier cities directly, do not pay a lot of direct attention to a city’s degree of internationalization and tend to base their market entry decisions more on business opportunities they identify in a city. In addition, this study argues that in most cases a city’s degree of internationalization does not influence the type of market entry mode companies choose to enter second-tier China.
One of the major challenges today is the global shortage of managerial staff. Globalization and opening up of new markets lead to a steadily rising demand, but the supply of Western talent is decreasing. Now enterprises tend to seek skilled personnel in rapidly developing economies such as China. China as a fast growing economy is usually assumed to have a vast number of low-cost workers and a bountiful supply of talent. This perception is likely to turn out to be a miscalculation endangering efficiency, growth or even the existence of enterprises that are willing to enter the Chinese market. However, not only foreign enterprises located in China suffer from talent shortage. State enterprises are also affected by competition for managerial staff. The remains of the socialist era are not yet completely overcome, especially with respect to human resource management (HRM renli ziyuan guanli). Combined with the demographic shift towards an ageing society caused by the Cultural Revolution, the One-Child Policy and a higher life expectancy, the upcoming shortage could impede economic growth. It is the cause of an increase in wages and competition, as well as rapidly changing enterprise and HRM strategies. This thesis basically concentrates on the development of the HRM sector with regard to recruitment, retention, motivation and performance appraisal of managerial staff. The current situation of staff shortage also requires a closer look on the recruitment strategies for the future generation of leaders, which are today’s young graduates. The thesis will not deal with the shortage of chief executive officers (CEO) as their turnover is closely related to shareholders and enterprise performance. Explaining this aspect would go beyond the scope of this thesis. Consequently, this thesis focuses on the central aspects of HRM under three main angles. First, HRM practice in China originated in the Mao era and in the shift from state control to reform and market liberalization. The Party planned every aspect of HRM and created a soft budget constraint. These factors prevented the development of efficient and profitable HRM strategies. Market liberalization and the state’s retreat from labor market control led to the initiation of competition. In order to adapt to these changing conditions, enterprises had to rationalize production, financing and human resources. The responsibility was gradually handed over to the enterprises, which now have to cope with market mechanisms and emerging challenges. Then, the current challenge to HRM is subject to the second part of this thesis. Managerial staff shortage is influenced by policies adopted a long time ago, but also by long distances immobility of staff. This narrows down the number of suitable personnel despite the national supply and leads to a high competition between enterprises. Competition related problems are increasing wages, which trigger a high turnover rate. Companies in China need to find a solution to all these problems as to not endanger their economic achievements. Finally, the third part analyzes the development and new approaches of the HRM sector towards recruitment, retention, motivation and assessment. The future developments are uncertain and depend on the pace of adaptation to new challenges. In spite of that, the fourth part not only summarizes the main aspects of this thesis, but also tries to give an outlook. Concerning actuality and reliability of sources it has to be stressed, that the Chinese labor market has not been subject to studies on HRM for many years. Therefore, most of the references used in this thesis are newspaper articles and internet sources. They are most suitable to represent the current conditions on the labor market. In this respect the Hudson Reports and the study by Diana Farrell were important, as they are reliable sources for numerical data. The interview with Madelaine Pfau was essential for this thesis, since her experiences with the Chinese market offered insight into the subject. Several of her ideas and opinions were the basis for further research, such as the suggestion to take a look at the HRM of Haier. The minutes of this interview are attached to my thesis. The Chinese sources consist of two research studies, an internet newspaper article and a publication from BriTay. One of the research studies deals with the adaptation of the Behavioral Event Interview to the Chinese HRM. The other gives an introduction to the HRM strategies of Haier. The newspaper article covers the use of competency models in China and tries to give further suggestions to the topic in form of an interview. The last suitable Chinese source is also an internet source from BriTay. BriTay is a consulting and management service company that was acquired by the international consultancy MRI worldwide in 2002. Therefore, BriTay was considered to be another reliable source for this thesis.