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In this thesis, a model system of a magnetic topological heterostructure is studied, namely a heterosystem consisting of a single ferromagnetic septuple-layer (SL) of \(MnBi_2Te_4\) on the surface of the three-dimensional topological insulator \(Bi_2Te_3\).
Using MBE and developing a specialized experimental setup, the first part of this thesis deals with the growth of \(Bi_2Te_3\) and thin films of \(MnBi_2Te_4\) on \(BaF_2\)-substrates by the co-evaporation of its binary constituents. The structural analysis is conducted along several suitable probes such as X-ray diffraction (XRD, XRR), AFM and scanning tunnelling electron microscopy (STEM). It is furthermore found that the growth of a single septuple-layer of \(MnBi_2Te_4\) on the surface of \(Bi_2Te_3\) can be facilitated.
By using X-ray absorption and circular magnetic dichroism (XAS, XMCD), the magnetic properties of \(MnBi_2Te_4\) are explored down to the monolayer limit. The layered nature of the vdW crystal and a strong uniaxial magnetocrystalline anisotropy establish stable out-of plane magnetic order at the surface of \(MnBi_2Te_4\), which is stable even down to the 2D limit. Pushing the material system to there, i.e. a single SL \(MnBi_2Te_4\) further allows to study the phase transition of this 2D ferromagnet and extract its critical behaviour with \(T_c \, = \, 14.89~k\) and \(\beta \, = \, 0.484\).
Utilizing bulk crystals of the ferromagnetic \(Fe_3GeTe_2\) as substrate allows to influence, enhance and bias the magnetism in the single SL of \(MnBi_2Te_4\). By growing heterostructures of the type \(MnBi_2Te_4\) -- n layer \(Bi_2Te_3\) -- \(Fe_3GeTe_2\)for n between 0 and 2, it is shown, that a considerable magnetic coupling can be introduced between the \(MnBi_2Te_4\) top-layer and the substrate.
Finally the interplay between topology and magnetism in the ferromagnetic extension is studied directly by angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy. The heterostructure is found to host a linearly dispersing TSS at the centre of the Brillouin zone. Using low temperature and high-resolution ARPES a large magnetic gap opening of \(\sim\) 35 meV is found at the Dirac point of the TSS. By following its temperature evolution, it is apparent that the scaling behaviour coincides with the magnetic order parameter of the modified surface.
Spin- and angle-resolved photoelectron spectroscopy is the prime method to investigate
spin polarized electronic states at solid state surfaces. In how far the spin polarization
of an emitted photoelectron reflects the intrinsic spin character of an electronic state is
the main question in the work at hand. It turns out that the measured spin polarization
is strongly influenced by experimental conditions, namely by the polarization of the
incoming radiation and the excitation energy. The photoemission process thus plays a
non-negligible role in a spin-sensitive measurement. This work is dedicated to unravel
the relation between the result of a spin-resolved measurement and the spin character
in the ground state and, therefore, to gain a deep understanding of the spin-dependent
photoemission process.
Materials that exhibit significant spin-splittings in their electronic structure,
owing to a strong spin-orbit coupling, serve as model systems for the investigations in
this work. Therefore, systems with large Rashba-type spin-splittings as BiTeI(0001)
and the surface alloys BiAg2/Ag(111) and PbAg2/Ag(111) are investigated. Likewise,
the surface electronic structure of the topological insulators Bi2Te2Se(0001) and
Bi2Te3(0001) are analyzed.
Light polarization dependent photoemission experiments serve as a probe of the
orbital composition of electronic states. The knowledge of the orbital structure helps
to disentangle the spin-orbital texture inherent to the different surface states, when
in addition the spin-polarization is probed. It turns out that the topological surface
state of Bi2Te2Se(0001) as well as the Rashba-type surface state of BiTeI(0001) exhibit
chiral spin-textures associated with the p-like in-plane orbitals. In particular, opposite
chiralities are coupled to either tangentially or radially aligned p-like orbitals,
respectively. The results presented here are thus evidence that a coupling between
spin- and orbital part of the wave function occurs under the influence of spin-orbit
coupling, independent of the materials topology.
Systematic photon energy dependent measurements of the out-of-plane spin polarization
of the topological surface state of Bi2Te3(0001) reveal a strong dependence and
even a reversal of the sign of the photoelectron spin polarization with photon energy.
Similarly, the measured spin component perpendicular to the wave vector of the surface
state of BiAg2/Ag(111) shows strong modulations and sign reversals when the photon energy is changed. In BiAg2/Ag(111) the variations in the photoelectron spin
polarization are accompanied by significant changes and even a complete suppression
of the photoemission intensity from the surface state, indicating that the variations of
the spin polarization are strongly related to the photoemission cross section.
This relation is finally analyzed in detail by employing a simple model, which is
based on an evaluation of the transition matrix elements that describe the presented
experiments. The model shows that the underlying cause for the observed photoelectron
spin reversals can be found in the coupling of the spin structure to the spatial part
of the initial state wave function, revealing the crucial role of spin-orbit interaction
in the initial state wave function. The model is supported by ab initio photoemission
calculations, which show strong agreement with the experimental results.
This thesis is aimed at establishing modalities of time-resolved photoelectron spectroscopy (tr-PES) conducted at a free-electron laser (FEL) source and at a high harmonic generation (HHG) source for imaging the motion of atoms, charge and energy at photoexcited hybrid organic/inorganic interfaces. Transfer of charge and energy across interfaces lies at the heart of surface science and device physics and involves a complex interplay between the motion of electrons and atoms. At hybrid organic/inorganic interfaces involving planar molecules, such as pentacene and copper(II)-phthalocyanine (CuPc), atomic motions in out-of-plane direction are particularly apparent. Such hybrid interfaces are of importance to, e.g., next-generation functional devices, smart catalytic surfaces and molecular machines. In this work, two hybrid interfaces – pentacene atop Ag(110) and copper(II)-phthalocyanine (CuPc) atop titanium disulfide (1T-TiSe2) – are characterized by means of modalities of tr-PES. The experiments were conducted at a HHG source and at the FEL source FLASH at Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron DESY (Hamburg, Germany). Both sources provide photon pulses with temporal widths of ∼ 100 fs and thus allow for resolving the non-equilibrium dynamics at hybrid interfaces involving both electronic and atomic motion on their intrinsic time scales. While the photon energy at this HHG source is limited to the UV-range, photon energies can be tuned from the UV-range to the soft x-ray-range at FLASH. With this increased energy range, not only macroscopic electronic information can be accessed from the sample’s valence and conduction states, but also site-specific structural and chemical information encoded in the core-level signatures becomes accessible. Here, the combined information from the valence band and core-level dynamics is obtained by performing time- and angle-resolved photoelectron spectroscopy (tr-ARPES) in the UV-range and subsequently performing time-resolved x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (tr-XPS) and time-resolved photoelectron diffraction (tr-XPD) in the soft x-ray regime in the same experimental setup. The sample’s bandstructure in energy-momentum space and time is captured by a time-of-flight momentum microscope with femtosecond temporal and sub-Ångström spatial resolutions. In the investigated systems, out-of-equilibrium dynamics are traced that are connected to the transfer of charge and energy across the hybrid interfaces. While energetic shifts and complementary population dynamics are observed for molecular and substrate states, the shapes of involved molecular orbitals change in energy-momentum space on a subpicosecond time scale. In combination with theory support, these changes are attributed to iiiatomic reorganizations at the interface and transient molecular structures are reconstructed with sub-Ångström precision. Unique to the material combination of CuPc/TiSe2, a structural rearrangement on the macroscopic scale is traced simultaneously: ∼ 60 % of the molecules undergo a concerted, unidirectional in-plane rotation. This surprising observation and its origin are detailed in this thesis and connected to a particularly efficient charge transfer across the CuPc/TiSe2 interface, resulting in a charging of ∼ 45 % of CuPc molecules.
This thesis examines the electronic properties of two materials that promise the realization and observation of novel exotic quantum phenomena. For this purpose, angle-resolved photoemission forms the experimental basis for the investigation of the electronic properties. Furthermore, the magnetic order is investigated utilizing X-ray dichroism measurements.
First, the bulk and surface electronic structure of epitaxially grown HgTe in its three-dimensional topological insulator phase is investigated. In this study, synchrotron radiation is used to address the three-dimensional band structure and orbital composition of the bulk states by employing photon-energy-dependent and polarization-dependent measurements, respectively. In addition, the topological surface state is examined on in situ grown samples using a laboratory photon source. The resulting data provide a means to experimentally localize the bulk band inversion in momentum space and to evidence the momentum-dependent change in the orbital character of the inverted bulk states.
Furthermore, a rather new series of van der Waals compounds, (MnBi\(_2\)Te\(_4\))(Bi\(_2\)Te\(_3\))\(_n\), is investigated. First, the magnetic properties of the first two members of the series, MnBi\(_2\)Te\(_4\) and MnBi\(_4\)Te\(_7\), are studied via X-ray absorption-based techniques. The topological surface state on the two terminations of MnBi\(_4\)Te\(_7\) is analyzed using circular dichroic, photon-energy-dependent, and spin-resolved photoemission. The topological state on the (MnBi\(_2\)Te\(_4\))-layer termination shows a free-standing Dirac cone with its Dirac point located in the bulk band gap. In contrast, on the (Bi\(_2\)Te\(_3\))-layer termination the surface state hybridizes with the bulk valences states, forming a spectral weight gap, and exhibits a Dirac point that is buried within the bulk continuum. Lastly, the lack of unambiguous evidence in the literature showing a temperature-dependent mass gap opening in these magnetic topological insulators is discussed through MnBi\(_2\)Te\(_4\).
Die vorliegende Arbeit demonstriert an Hand von verschiedenen Modellsystemen wie detailliert sich die grundlegenden Eigenschaften molekularer Adsorbate mit der winkelaufgelösten Photoemission erkunden lassen. Die von Peter Puschnig et al. vorgestellte Verknüpfung zwischen Photoemissionsintensität und den Molekülorbitalen im Grundzustand mittels einer Fouriertransformation war dabei entscheidend, um die verschiedenen physikalischen Effekte einordnen und verstehen zu können. Während für Coronen oder HBC die Orbitale im Grundzustand sehr gut zum Experiment passen, lassen sich für PTCDA und NTCDA einige Abweichungen von der DFT-Rechnung auf Basis der (semi-)lokalen GGA- oder LDA-Funktionale erkennen, die sich bei Messungen mit s-Polarisation hervorheben lassen. Diese können auf den Einfluss des Endzustandes in der Photoemission zurückgeführt werden. Im Rahmen der Dysonorbitale lassen sich die dafür verantwortlichen Relaxationseffekte zwischen dem N-Elektronensystem des Moleküls im Grundzustand und dem (N-1)-Elektronensystem des zurückbleibenden Kations explizit beschreiben. Die Berechnung des Photoemissionssignals mittels Fouriertransformation des Grundzustandes kann darüber hinaus weitere physikalische Effekte nicht korrekt berücksichtigen. Erste Anzeichen hierfür konnten am PTCDA-HOMO bei einer Photonenenergie von 27 eV und s-Polarisation detektiert werden. Darüber hinaus kann die Näherung des Photoelektronenendzustands als ebene Welle den beobachteten zirkularen Dichroismus am HOMO und LUMO von PTCDA nicht erklären. Erst in der Erweiterung durch eine Partialwellenzerlegung des Photoelektronenendzustands tritt ein dichroisches Signal in der theoretischen Beschreibung auf. Für das delokalisierte pi-Elektronensystem von PTCDA ist aber selbst diese Verfeinerung noch nicht ausreichend, um das Experiment korrekt beschreiben und weitere Eigenschaften vorhersagen zu können. Qualitativ lassen sich die Veränderungen im CDAD bei der Transformation um 90° für HOMO und LUMO mit einem gruppentheoretischen Ansatz verstehen. Damit ist es möglich, den molekularen Zuständen ihre irreduzible Darstellung zuzuweisen, worüber sich für PTCDA die Verteilung der quantenmechanischen Phase rekonstruieren lässt. Dies ist deshalb äußerst bemerkenswert, da üblicherweise in physikalischen Experimenten nur die Intensität und keine Informationen über die Phase messbar sind. Damit können die Photoemissionsmessungen im k||-Raum vollständig in den Realraum transformiert werden, wodurch die laterale Ortsinformation über die höchsten besetzen Molekülorbitale von PTCDA zugänglich wird. Neben der Bestimmung der molekularen Orbitale, deren Struktur von der Anordnung der Atome im Molekül dominiert wird, enthält die winkelaufgelöste Photoemission Informationen über die Adsorbat-Substrat-Wechselwirkung. Für hoch geordnete Monolagen ist es möglich, die verschiedenen Verbreiterungsmechanismen zu trennen und zu analysieren. Bei den untersuchten Systemen sind die Verbreiterungen aufgrund von unterschiedlichen Adsorptionsplätzen oder Probeninhomogenitäten ebenso wie die experimentelle Auflösung der 2D-Analysatoren vernachlässigbar gegenüber Lebensdauereffekten und evtl. Verbreiterung aufgrund von Dispersionseffekten. Bereits bei den äußerst schwach wechselwirkenden Systemen Coronen auf Ag(111) und Au(111) unterscheiden sich die beiden Systeme in ihrer Lorentzverbreiterung beim HOMO. In erster Näherung lässt sich dies auf eine Lebensdauer des entstandenen Photolochs zurückführen, welches je nach Stärke der Substratkopplung unterschiedlich schnell mit Substratelektronen aufgefüllt werden kann. Die Lorentzbreite als Indikator für die Wechselwirkung bzw. Hybridisierungsstärke zeigt für die Systeme mit Ladungstransfer vom Substrat in das Molekül eine sehr viel größere Verbreiterung. Zum Beispiel beträgt die Lorentzbreite des LUMO für NTCDA/Ag(110) FWHM=427 meV, und somit eine mehr als fünfmal so große Verbreiterung als für das HOMO von Coronen/Au(111). Diese starke Verbreiterung geht im Fall von NTCDA/Ag(110) wie auch bei den untersuchten Systemen NTCDA/Cu(100) und PTCDA/Ag(110) einher mit einem Ladungstransfer vom Substrat ins Molekül, sowie mit der Ausbildung eines zusätzlichen charakteristischen Signals in der Winkelverteilung des LUMO, dem Hybridisierungszustand bei kx,y=0Å-1. Die Intensität dieses Zustands korreliert bei den Systemen NTCDA auf Cu(100) bzw. auf Ag(110) jeweils mit der Lorentzbreite des LUMO-Zustands. Die Hybridisierung zwischen Molekül und Substrat hat noch weitere Auswirkungen auf die beobachtbaren physikalischen Eigenschaften. So führt die starke Hybridisierung mit dem Substrat wiederum dazu, dass sich die intermolekulare Dispersion für die Elektronen im LUMO-Zustand deutlich verstärkt. Der direkte Überlapp der Wellenfunktionen ist im System PTCDA/Ag(110) laut DFT-Rechnungen relativ klein und führt lediglich zu einer Bandbreite von 60 meV. Durch die Hybridisierung mit den delokalisierten Substratbändern erhöht sich der Grad der Delokalisierung im LUMO-Zustand, d.h. die Bandbreite steigt auf 230 meV, wie das Experiment bestätigt. Im Gegensatz zu früheren STM/STS-basierten Messungen [Temirov2006] kann mit der Kombination aus DFT-Rechnung und ARPES-Experiment eindeutig nachgewiesen werden, dass das Substrat im Fall von PTCDA/Ag(110) die Bandbreite verstärken kann, sodass sich die effektive Masse der Lochladungsträger von meff=3,9me auf meff=1,1me reduziert. Im Blick auf die eingangs gestellte Frage, ob sich molekulare Adsorbate eher wie isolierte Moleküle oder als periodische Festkörper beschreiben lassen, kommt diese Arbeit auf ein differenziertes Ergebnis. In den Impulsverteilungen, die sich aus der Form der molekularen Wellenfunktionen ableiten lassen, spiegelt sich eindeutig der isolierte molekulare Charakter wieder. Dagegen zeigt sich in der Energiedispersion E(k||) ein delokalisierter, blochartiger Charakter, und es konnte demonstriert werden, dass es zu einem Vermischen von Metall- und Molekülwellenfunktionen kommt. Molekulare Adsorbate sind also beides, isolierte Moleküle und zweidimensionale Kristalle mit delokalisierten Zuständen.
Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurden mit Hilfe von hochaufgelöster ARPES die Auswirkungen verschiedener intrinsischer und extrinsischer Einflüsse auf zweidimensionale elektronische Zustände untersucht: Eine Änderung der Morphologie aufgrund einer (2 × 1)-Rekonstruktion bewirkt beim OFZ von Au(110) im Vergleich zur nicht-rekonstruierten Oberfläche eine Verschiebung der Bindungsenergie von ca. 700meV. Dieses Verhalten wurde in LDA-slab-layer-Rechungen reproduziert und durch gezielte Modifikation der Oberflächenstruktur sowie kontrollierte Beeinflussung des OFZ durch die Adsorbate Ag, Na und Au verstanden. Eine Linienbreitenanalyse der sehr scharfen Minoritäts-QWS in dünnen Fe- Filmen auf W(110) ermöglichte eine Abschätzung der Elektron-Elektron- Wechselwirkung und eine Bestimmung der Elektron-Phonon-Kopplungskonstanten. Die starke Anisotropie der Dispersion der QWS ist des weiteren durch den Vergleich mit GGA-slab-layer-Rechnungen als intrinsische Eigenschaft dieser Zustände identifiziert worden. Mit Hilfe eines erweiterten PAM wurde zudem die k⊥-Dispersion des, den QWS zugrunde liegenden Volumenbandes, bestimmt. Die spinabhängigen Einflussfaktoren Spin-Orbit- und Austausch-Wechselwirkung sowie deren Kombination wurden am Beispiel des OFZ von dünnen Au-Filmen auf Ni(111), sowie an QWS in dünnen Ni-Filmen auf W(110) untersucht. Die in SPR-KKR-Photoemissionrechungen gefundene leichte Asymmetrie der spinaufgelösten Dispersion wurde in den spinintegrierten ARPESMessungen nicht beobachtet. Ab 9ML Au-Bedeckung konnte die Rashba- Aufspaltung des OFZ aufgelöst werden. Eine durch das W(110)-Substrat induzierte Rashba-Aufspaltung wurde bei sp-artigen QWS in dünnen Ni- Filmen beobachtet, welche jedoch mit weiteren Strukturen hybridisieren, was eine eindeutige Aussage über die tatsächliche Natur der Aufspaltung erschwert.
Breaking inversion symmetry in crystalline solids enables the formation of spin-polarized electronic states by spin-orbit coupling without the need for magnetism. A variety of interesting physical phenomena related to this effect have been intensively investigated in recent years, including the Rashba effect, topological insulators and Weyl semimetals. In this work, the interplay of inversion symmetry breaking and spin-orbit coupling and, in particular their general influence on the character of electronic states, i.e., on the spin and orbital degrees of freedom, is investigated experimentally. Two different types of suitable model systems are studied: two-dimensional surface states for which the Rashba effect arises from the inherently broken inversion symmetry at the surface, and a Weyl semimetal, for which inversion symmetry is broken in the three-dimensional crystal structure. Angle-resolved photoelectron spectroscopy provides momentum-resolved access to the spin polarization and the orbital composition of electronic states by means of photoelectron spin detection and dichroism with polarized light. The experimental results shown in this work are also complemented and supported by ab-initio density functional theory calculations and simple model considerations.
Altogether, it is shown that the breaking of inversion symmetry has a decisive influence on the Bloch wave function, namely, the formation of an orbital angular momentum. This mechanism is, in turn, of fundamental importance both for the physics of the surface Rashba effect and the topology of the Weyl semimetal TaAs.
In the family of iron-based superconductors, LaFeAsO-type materials possess the simplest electronic structure due to their pronounced two-dimensionality. And yet they host superconductivity with the highest transition temperature T\(_{c}\)\(\approx\)55K. Early theoretical predictions of their electronic structure revealed multiple large circular portions of the Fermi surface with a very good geometrical overlap (nesting), believed to enhance the pairing interaction and thus superconductivity. The prevalence of such large circular features in the Fermi surface has since been associated with many other iron-based compounds and has grown to be generally accepted in the field. In this work we show that a prototypical compound of the 1111-type, SmFe\(_{0.92}\)Co\(_{0.08}\)AsO, is at odds with this description and possesses a distinctly different Fermi surface, which consists of two singular constructs formed by the edges of several bands, pulled to the Fermi level from the depths of the theoretically predicted band structure by strong electronic interactions. Such singularities dramatically affect the low-energy electronic properties of the material, including superconductivity. We further argue that occurrence of these singularities correlates with the maximum superconducting transition temperature attainable in each material class over the entire family of iron-based superconductors.
Atomic nanowires formed by self-assembled growth on semiconducting surfaces represent a feasible physical realization of quasi-1D electron systems and can be used to study fascinating 1D quantum phenomena. The system in the focus of this thesis, Si(553)-Au, is generated by Au adsorption onto a stepped silicon surface. It features two different chain types, interspersed with each other: A Au chain on the terrace, and a honeycomb chain of graphitic silicon located at the step edge. The silicon atoms at the exposed edges of the latter are predicted to be spin-polarized and charge-ordered [1], leading to an ordered array of local magnetic moments referred to as ``spin chains''.
The present thesis puts this spin chain proposal to an experimental test.
A detailed scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) and scanning tunneling spectroscopy (STS) scrutiny reveals a distinct unoccupied density of states (DOS) feature localized at every third Si step-edge atom, which aligns perfectly with the density functional theory (DFT) prediction.
This finding provides strong evidence for the formation of spin chains at the Si(553)-Au step edges, and simultaneously rules out the interpretation of previous studies which attributed the x3 step-edge superstructure to a Peierls instability.
To study the formation of spin chains in further detail, an additional member of the so-called Si(hhk)-Au family -- Si(775)-Au -- is analyzed.
Based on DFT modeling (performed by S.C. Erwin, Naval Research Laboratory, USA) and detailed STM and STS experiments, a new structure model for this surface is developed, and the absence of spin chains at the Si(775)-Au step edges is demonstrated.
The different step-edge charge distributions of all known Si(hhk)-Au surfaces are traced back to an electron transfer between the terrace and the step edge. Accordingly, an unintentional structure defect should create a localized spin at the Si(775)-Au step edge. This prediction is verified experimentally, and suggest that surface chemistry can be used to create and destroy Si spin chains.
Having clarified why spin chains form on some Si(hhk)-Au surfaces but not on others, various interaction effects of the Si(553)-Au spin chains are inspected.
A collaborative analysis by SPA-LEED (M. Horn-von Hoegen group, University of Duisburg-Essen, Germany), DFT (S.C. Erwin), and STM reveals strong lateral coupling between adjacent spin chains, bearing interesting implications for their magnetic ordering. The centered geometry uncovered leads to magnetic frustration, and may stabilize a 2D quantum spin liquid.
Moreover, a complex interplay between neighboring Au and Si chains is detected.
Specifically, the interaction is found effectively ``one-way'', i.e., the Si step edges respond to the Au chains but not vice versa.
This unidirectional effect breaks the parity of the Si chains, and creates two different configurations of step edges with opposite directionality.
In addition to the static properties of the Si(553)-Au surface mentioned above, the occurrence of solitons in both wire types is witnessed in real space by means of high-resolution STM imaging. The solitons are found to interact with one another such that both move in a coupled fashion along the chains. Likewise, STM experiments as a function of the tunneling current suggest an excitation of solitons along the step edge by the STM tunneling tip.
Solitons are also found to play an essential role in the temperature-dependent behavior of the Si(553)-Au step edges.
It is an accepted fact that the distinct x3 superstructure of the Si(553)-Au step edges vanishes upon heating to room temperature. As a first step in exploring this transition in detail over a large temperature range, a previously undetected, occupied electronic state associated with the localized step-edge spins is identified by means of angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy (ARPES).
A tracking of this state as a function of temperature reveals an order-disorder-type transition. Complementary STM experiments attribute the origin of this transition to local, thermally activated spin site hops, which correspond to soliton-anitsoliton pairs.
Finally, a manipulation of the Si(553)-Au atomic wire array is achieved by the stepwise adsorption of potassium atoms. This does not only increase the filling of the Au-induced surface bands culminating in a metal-insulator transition (MIT), but also modifies the Si step-edge charge distribution, as indicated by STM and ARPES experiments.
[1] S. C. Erwin and F. Himpsel, Intrinsic magnetism at silicon surfaces, Nat. Commun. 1,
58 (2010).