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Institute
- Institut für Klinische Neurobiologie (157) (remove)
Chronic pain conditions are a major reason for the utilization of the health care system. Inflammatory pain states can persist facilitated by peripheral sensitization of nociceptors. The voltage-gated sodium channel 1.9 (NaV1.9) is an important regulator of neuronal excitability and is involved in inflammation-induced pain hypersensitivity. Recently, oxidized 1-palmitoyl-2-arachidonoyl-sn-glycerol-3-phosphatidylcholine (OxPAPC) was identified as a mediator of acute inflammatory pain and persistent hyperalgesia, suggesting an involvement in proalgesic cascades and peripheral sensitization. Peripheral sensitization implies an increase in neuronal excitability. This thesis aims to characterize spontaneous calcium activity in neuronal compartments as a proxy to investigate neuronal excitability, making use of the computational tool Neural Activity Cubic (NA3). NA3 allows automated calcium activity event detection of signal-close-to-noise calcium activity and evaluation of neuronal activity states. Additionally, the influence of OxPAPC and NaV1.9 on the excitability of murine dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons and the effect of OxPAPC on the response of DRG neurons towards other inflammatory mediators (prostaglandin E2, histamine, and bradykinin) is investigated. Using calcium imaging, the presence of spontaneous calcium activity in murine DRG neurons was established. NA3 was used to quantify this spontaneous calcium activity, which revealed decreased activity counts in axons and somata of NaV1.9 knockout (KO) neurons compared to wildtype (WT). Incubation of WT DRG neurons with OxPAPC before calcium imaging did not show altered activity counts compared to controls. OxPAPC incubation also did not modify the response of DRG neurons treated with inflammatory mediators. However, the variance ratio computed by NA3 conclusively allowed to determine neuronal activity states. In conclusion, my findings indicate an important function of NaV1.9 in determining the neuronal excitability of DRG neurons in resting states. OxPAPC exposition does not influence neuronal excitability nor sensitizes neurons for other inflammatory mediators. This evidence reduces the primary mechanism of OxPAPC-induced hyperalgesia to acute effects. Importantly, it was possible to establish an approach for unbiased excitability quantification of DRG neurons by calcium activity event detection and calcium trace variance analysis by NA3. It was possible to show that signal-close-to-noise calcium activity reflects neuronal excitability states.
Der zur Familie der pentameren ligandengesteuerten Ionenkanäle zugehörige Glycinrezeptor (GlyR) ist ein wichtiger Vermittler synaptischer Inhibition im Zentralnervensystem von Säugetieren. GlyR-Mutationen führen zur neurologischen Bewegungsstörung Hyperekplexie. Aufgrund fehlender struktureller Daten ist die intrazelluläre Loop-Struktur zwischen den Transmembransegmenten 3 und 4 (TM3-4 Loop) eine weitgehend unerforschte Domäne des GlyR. Innerhalb dieser Domäne wurden Rezeptortrunkierungen sowie Punktmutationen identifiziert. Rezeptortrunkierung geht mit Funktionslosigkeit einher, welche jedoch durch Koexpression des fehlenden Sequenzabschnitts zum Teil wiederhergestellt werden kann. Innerhalb dieser Arbeit wurde die Interaktion zwischen trunkierten, funktionslosen GlyR und sukzessiv verkürzten Komplementationskonstrukten untersucht. Dabei wurden als Minimaldomänen für die Interaktion das C-terminalen basische Motive des TM3-4 Loops, die TM4 sowie der extrazelluläre C-Terminus identifiziert. Die Rückkreuzung transgener Mäuse, die das Komplementationskonstrukt iD-TM4 unter Kontrolle des GlyR-Promotors exprimierten, mit der oscillator-Maus spdot, die einen trunkierten GlyR exprimiert und 3 Wochen nach der Geburt verstirbt, hatte aufgrund fehlender Proteinexpression keinen Effekt auf die Letalität der Mutation. Des Weiteren wurde die Bedeutsamkeit der Integrität beider basischer Motive 316RFRRKRR322 und 385KKIDKISR392 im TM3-4 Loop in Kombination mit der Loop-Länge für die Funktionalität und das Desensitisierungsverhalten des humanen GlyRα1 anhand von chimären Rezeptoren identifiziert. Eine bisher unbekannte Patientenmutation P366L innerhalb des TM3-4 Loops wurde mit molekularbiologischen, biochemischen und elektrophysiologischen Methoden charakterisiert. Es wurde gezeigt, dass die mutierten Rezeptorkomplexe in vitro deutlich reduzierte Glycin-induzierte Maximalströme sowie eine beschleunigte Schließkinetik aufweisen. P366L hat im Gegensatz zu bereits charakterisierten Hyperekplexiemutationen innerhalb des TM3-4 Loops keinen Einfluss auf die Biogenese des Rezeptors. P366 ist Teil einer möglichen Poly-Prolin-Helix, die eine Erkennungssequenz für SH3-Domänen darstellt. Ein potenzieller Interaktionspartner des TM3-4 Loops des GlyRα1 ist Collybistin, welches eine wichtige Rolle bei der synaptischen Rezeptorintegration spielt und die Verbindung zum Zytoskelett vermittelt. An der inhibitorischen Synapse verursacht P366L durch die Reduzierung postsynaptischer Chloridströme, das beschleunigte Desensitisierungsverhalten des GlyRα1 sowie ein verändertes Interaktionsmotiv Störungen der glycinergen Transmission, die zur Ausprägung phänotypischer Symptome der Hyperekplexie führen.
Die proximale spinale Muskelatrophie (SMA) ist eine autosomal rezessive Erb-krankheit, welche durch fortschreitende Muskelatrophie mit Betonung der pro-ximalen Extremitäten, sowie zunehmende motorische Lähmungen charakterisiert wird. Bedingt wird diese neurodegenerative Erkrankung durch Mutation bzw. Deletion des SMN1-Gens auf Chromosom 5q13. Dies führt zu reduzierten Mengen des ubiquitär exprimierten SMN-Proteins, da der Verlust des SMN1-Gens nicht durch das noch verbleibende SMN2-Gen kompensiert werden kann. Die SMN-Promotor-Region enthält ein CRE II bindendes Element, welches Effekte von zyklischem Adenosinmonophosphat (cAMP) vermittelt und so die SMN-Transkription in untersuchten Zellen stimuliert. Ausgehend von diesem Befund stellte sich die Frage, ob cAMP dem Mangel an volllängen SMN bei der SMA entgegen wirkt. Daher wurden für diese Dissertation neurosphärenbildende kortikale Vorläuferzellen und primär kultivierte Motoneuronen von Smn+/+; SMN2- und Smn–/–;SMN2-Mausembryonen untersucht, um zu klären, ob die cAMP-Behandlung der Zellen zu einer Hochregulierung des SMN2-Transkripts führt, und durch die resultierende Erhöhung des SMN-Proteingehalts morphologische und funktionelle Defekte kompensiert werden. Die Untersuchung zeigte eine signifikante Zunahme des SMN2-Transkriptgehalts in Anwesenheit von cAMP. Dadurch kam es zu einem Anstieg der SMN-Proteinmenge im Soma, Axon und Wachstumskegel von Smn–/–;SMN2-Motoneuronen. Die Verteilungs-störung des SMN-Interaktionspartners hnRNP R mit fehlender kontrolltypischer Anreicherung im distalen Axon und Wachstumskegel von Smn–/–;SMN2-Motoneuronen wurde ebenfalls durch cAMP kompensiert. Smn-defiziente Mo-toneurone zeigten im Vergleich zu Kontrollzellen kleinere Wachstumskegel sowie ein Defizit an β-Aktin im distalen Axon. Zudem fehlte in Smn–/–;SMN2-Motoneuronen die bei Kontrollen ausgeprägte Zusammenlagerung von N-Typ spezifischen Ca2+-Kanälen in der Präsynapse, die nach Kontakt mit der β2-Kette des endplattenspezifischen Laminin-221 spontan öffnen und so einen in-trazellulären Kalziumanstieg bewirken, wodurch es zu Erregbarkeitsstörungen und Axonelongationsdefekten bei Smn-defizienten Motoneuronen kommt. Die Behandlung der Smn-defizienten Motoneuronen mit cAMP führte zur Vergrößerung der Wachstumskegelfläche und zu einer im Verlauf des Axons zunehmenden Anfärbung mit β-Aktin. Außerdem kam es zu einer Erhöhung der Menge an Cav2.2-Kanalprotein in den Wachstumskegeln Smn-defizienter Motoneurone, was mit einer erhöhten Erregbarkeit korrelierte und zu einer Normalisierung der Axonlänge von Smn–/–;SMN2-Motoneuronen auf Laminin-221 führte. Die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit lassen die Vermutung zu, dass Smn-defiziente Motoneurone in vivo Defekte im präsynaptischen Bereich der Motorendplatte aufweisen. In Zukunft können mit dem beschriebenen in vitro Assay weitere Substanzen, welche die SMN2-Traskription stimulieren, auf ihr kompensatorisches Potential getestet werden.
Most RNAs within polarized cells such as neurons are sorted subcellularly in a coordinated manner. Despite advances in the development of methods for profiling polyadenylated RNAs from small amounts of input RNA, techniques for profiling coding and non-coding RNAs simultaneously are not well established. Here, we optimized a transcriptome profiling method based on double-random priming and applied it to serially diluted total RNA down to 10 pg. Read counts of expressed genes were robustly correlated between replicates, indicating that the method is both reproducible and scalable. Our transcriptome profiling method detected both coding and long non-coding RNAs sized >300 bases. Compared to total RNAseq using a conventional approach our protocol detected 70% more genes due to reduced capture of ribosomal RNAs. We used our method to analyze the RNA composition of compartmentalized motoneurons. The somatodendritic compartment was enriched for transcripts with post-synaptic functions as well as for certain nuclear non-coding RNAs such as 7SK. In axons, transcripts related to translation were enriched including the cytoplasmic non-coding RNA 7SL. Our profiling method can be applied to a wide range of investigations including perturbations of subcellular transcriptomes in neurodegenerative diseases and investigations of microdissected tissue samples such as anatomically defined fiber tracts.
Spinal muscular atrophy and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis are the two most common devastating motoneuron diseases. The mechanisms leading to motoneuron degeneration are not resolved so far, although different hypotheses have been built on existing data. One possible mechanism is disturbed axonal transport of RNAs in the affected motoneurons. The underlying question of this study was therefore to characterize changes in transcript levels of distinct RNAs in cell culture models of spinal muscular atrophy and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, especially in the axonal compartment of primary motoneurons.
To investigate this in detail we first established compartmentalized cultures of Primary mouse motoneurons. Subsequently, total RNA of both compartments was extracted
separately and either linearly amplified and subjected to microarray profiling or whole transcriptome amplification followed by RNA-Sequencing was performed. To make
the whole transcriptome amplification method suitable for compartmentalized cultures, we adapted a double-random priming strategy. First, we applied this method
for initial optimization onto serial dilutions of spinal cord RNA and later on to the compartmentalized motoneurons.
Analysis of the data obtained from wildtype cultures already revealed interesting results. First, the RNA composition of axons turned out to be highly similar to the somatodendritic compartment. Second, axons seem to be particularly enriched for transcripts related to protein synthesis and energy production. In a next step we
repeated the experiments by using knockdown cultures. The proteins depleted hereby are Smn, Tdp-43 and hnRNP R. Another experiment was performed by knocking down the non-coding RNA 7SK, the main interacting RNA of hnRNP R.
Depletion of Smn led to a vast number of deregulated transcripts in the axonal and somatodendritic compartment. Transcripts downregulated in the axons upon Smn depletion were especially enriched for GOterms related to RNA processing and encode proteins located in neuron projections including axons and growth cones.
Strinkingly, among the upregulated transcripts in the somatodendritic compartment we mainly found MHC class I transcripts suggesting a potential neuroprotective role.
In contrast, although knockdown of Tdp-43 also revealed a large number of downregulated transcripts in the axonal compartment, these transcripts were mainly
associated with functions in transcriptional regulation and RNA splicing. For the hnRNP R knockdown our results were again different. Here, we observed
downregulated transcripts in the axonal compartment mainly associated with regulation of synaptic transmission and nerve impulses. Interestingly, a comparison between deregulated transcripts in the axonal compartment of both hnRNP R and 7SK knockdown presented a significant overlap of several transcripts suggesting
some common mechanism for both knockdowns.
Thus, our data indicate that a loss of disease-associated proteins involved in axonal RNA transport causes distinct transcriptome alterations in motor axons.
Die proximale spinale Muskelatrophie (SMA) stellt eine der häufigsten erblichen Ursachen für den Tod im Kindesalter dar. Die Patienten leiden unter symmetrischer, langsam progredienter Muskelschwäche und in schweren Fällen auch an sensiblen Ausfällen. Die neurodegenerative Erkrankung wird autosomal-rezessiv durch Deletion bzw. Mutationen des SMN1-Gens (survival motor neuron 1-Gens) auf Chromosom 5q13 vererbt. Das SMN-Protein wird ubiquitär exprimiert und findet sich in allen untersuchten Geweben in einem Multiproteinkomplex, dem sogenannten SMN-Komplex, der die Zusammenlagerung von spleißosomalen Komplexen koordiniert. Die Funktion solcher Komplexe ist für alle Zelltypen essentiell. Deshalb stellt sich die Frage, welcher Pathomechanismus für die Erkrankung SMA verantwortlich ist. Die vorliegende Arbeit zeigt, dass die Überlebensraten der Smn–/–;SMN2-Motoneurone 14 Tage alter Mausembryonen gegenüber Smn+/+;SMN2-Motoneuronen (Kontrollen) nicht reduziert waren. Bei der morphologischen Untersuchung der Zellen zum gleichen Entwicklungszeitpunkt zeigten sich jedoch deutliche Unterschiede. Die Axonlängen der Smn-defizienten Motoneurone waren gegenüber Kontrollen signifikant verringert. Das Dendritenwachstum war nicht beeinträchtigt. Die Untersuchung der Wachstumskegel ergab bei den Smn–/–;SMN2 Motoneuronen eine signifikante Verminderung der Fläche gegenüber Kontrollen. Weiterhin zeigten sich Defekte im Zytoskelett. In den Motoneuronen von Kontrolltieren fand sich eine Anreicherung von beta-Aktin in perinukleären Kompartimenten sowie besonders stark in den Wachstumskegeln. Die beta-Aktin-Anreicherung nahm im Verlauf des Axons zu. In Smn–/–;SMN2-Motoneuronen war keine Anreicherung im distalen Axon oder in den Wachstumskegeln detektierbar. Eine gleichartige Verteilungsstörung fand sich für das SMN-Interaktionsprotein hnRNP R (heterogenous nuclear ribonucleoprotein R) und, wie andere Arbeiten zeigen konnten, auch für die beta-Aktin-mRNA, die spezifisch an hnRNP R bindet. In gleicher Weise wurden auch Veränderungen in den sensorischen Neuronen aus den Hinterwurzelganglien 14 Tage alter Mausembryonen untersucht. Bei Smn–/–;SMN2-Mäusen war die Neuritenlänge sensorischer Neurone im Vergleich zur Kontrolle gering, jedoch signifikant verkürzt und die Fläche der Wachstumskegel hochsignifikant verringert. Im Smn–/–;SMN2 Mausmodell für eine schwere Form der SMA fanden sich in den sensorischen Nervenzellen im Vergleich zu den Motoneuronen geringer ausgeprägte, jedoch gleichartige Veränderungen, was auf einen ähnlichen Pathomechanismus in beiden Zelltypen hinweist.
Spinale Muskelatrophie (SMA), die häufigste autosomal rezessive neuromuskuläre Erkrankung bei Kindern und jungen Erwachsenen, wird durch Mutationen in der telomeren Kopie des survival motor neuron (SMN1) Gens auf dem humanen Chromosom 5 verursacht. Anders als bei Mäusen, welche nur ein Smn Gen haben, gibt es beim Menschen eine zweite Kopie (SMN2). Das Genprodukt dieser zweiten Kopie wird am C-Terminus bevorzugt alternativ gespleißt. Es bringt nur eine kleine Menge des vollständigen SMN Proteins hervor. Der Grund, warum eine reduzierte Menge des ubiquitär exprimierten SMN Proteins speziell zu einer Motorneuronendegeneration führt, ohne andere Zelltypen gleichermaßen zu betreffen ist noch immer nicht bekannt. Mit Hilfe der Yeast-Two-Hybrid Technik wurden die beiden heterogenen nukleären Ribonukleoproteine hnRNP-R und hnRNP-Q als neue SMN-bindende Proteine identifiziert. Diese beiden hochhomologen Proteine waren bereits bekannt und stehen in Verbindung mit dem RNA Metabolismus, im Speziellen: Editing, Transport und Spleißing. hnRNP-R und -Q interagieren mit Wildtyp Smn, aber nicht mit trunkierten oder mutierten Smn Formen, welche in SMA-Patienten gefunden wurden. Beide Proteine werden in den meisten Geweben exprimiert. Im Rückenmark von Mäusen ist die stärkste Expression am neunzehnten embryonalen Tag zu beobachten. Interessanterweise ist hnRNP-R hauptsächlich in den Axonen von Motoneuronen zu finden und kolokalisiert dort mit Smn. Im Mausmodell für die SMA konnte gezeigt werden, dass sich die Motoneurone von erkrankten Mäusen hinsichtlich der Morphologie ihrer Neuriten von solchen aus Wildtyp Mäusen unterscheiden. Werden hnRNP-R oder hnRNP-Q in kultivierten Nervenzellen exprimiert, so fördern sie das Wachstum von Neuriten. Bei SMA-Patienten ohne Mutation im SMN Gen konnte allerdings weder Mutation noch Deletion in hnRNP-R oder hnRNP-Q nachgewiesen werden. Die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit können entscheidend zu einem besseren Verständnis der motoneuronen spezifischen Funktion von Smn bei der SMA beitragen.
Der Glycin-Rezeptor ist Teil der inhibitorischen liganden-gesteuerten Ionenkanäle im ZNS und wird am stärksten im adulten Rückenmark sowie im Hirnstamm exprimiert. In der Nerv-Muskel-Synapse sind GlyR für die rekurrente Hemmung der Motoneuronen wichtig und steuern das Gleichgewicht zwischen Erregung und Hemmung der Muskelzellen. Für die glycinerge Neurotransmission sind neben den präsynaptischen GlyR 𝛼1 insbesondere postsynaptische GlyR 𝛼1/𝛽 verantwortlich. Durch Mutationen des GlyR entsteht das Erkrankungsbild der Hyperekplexie mit übersteigerter Schreckhaftigkeit, Muskelsteifheit und Apnoe. Hauptursächlich dafür sind Mutationen im GLRA1-Gen. Die shaky Maus stellt ein gutes Modell zur Erforschung dieser seltenen Erkrankung dar.
Die shaky Missense-Mutation Q177K in der extrazellulären 𝛽8-𝛽9 Schleife der Glycin- Rezeptor-𝛼1-Untereinheit zeigte strukturell ein gestörtes Wasserstoffbrückennetzwerk. Funktionell konnten eingeschränkt leitfähige Ionenkanäle identifiziert werden. Der letale Phänotyp äußert sich beim homozygoten shaky Tier durch Schrecksymptome mit einem einhergehenden zunehmenden Gewichtsverlust. Die Quantifizierung der Oberflächenexpression deutete auf einen Verlust synaptischer GlyR 𝛼1/𝛽 hin. Aussagen bezüglich der GlyR-𝛽-Untereinheit, die Teil des synaptischen GlyR Komplexes ist, waren aufgrund fehlender stabiler Antikörper bisher nicht möglich. Das neuartige KI- Mausmodell Glrb eos exprimiert endogen fluoreszierende 𝛽 -Untereinheiten und ermöglicht damit erstmalig eine Betrachtung der GlyR- 𝛽-Expression in Tiermodellen der Startle Erkrankung.
Ziel dieser Arbeit war es, die Auswirkungen der shaky Mutation auf die Interaktion mit der 𝛽 -Untereinheit und Gephyrin zu erforschen. Dafür wurden Markerproteine der glycinergen Synapse in Rückenmarksneuronen der Kreuzung Glrb eos x Glra1 sh gefärbt und quantifiziert. Die durchgeführte Gewichtsbestimmung der Nachkommen im zeitlichen Verlauf zeigte keinen Einfluss der eingefügten mEos4b-Sequenz auf das Körpergewicht der Tiere und schließt damit funktionelle Einschränkungen bedingt durch die mEos4b-Sequenz aus. Zur Verstärkung des 𝛽 eos-Signals wurde ein Antikörper verwendet. Die Quantifizierung der GlyR- 𝛽- Untereinheit an Rückenmarksneuronen zeigte für homozygote shaky Tiere im Vergleich zum Wildtyp signifikant reduzierte 𝛽eos Oberflächenexpressionen in Gephyrin Clustern sowie signifikant erniedrigte Kolokalisationen von Gephyrin/𝛼1, 𝛽eos/𝛼1 und 𝛽eos/Gephyrin. Die mutierte GlyR-𝛼1- Untereinheit wurde hingegen vermehrt an der Oberfläche in shaky Tieren exprimiert. Die Ergebnisse der Rückenmarksschnitte unterstützen diese Befunde aus den Primärneuronen. Die Untersuchung der Präsynapse erbrachte für Glrb eos/eos x Glra1 sh/sh eine signifikant verminderte Synapsin und Synapsin/𝛼1 Expression.
Die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit erweitern die Daten früherer Arbeiten zur shaky Maus und zeigen einen starken Verlust synaptischer GlyR 𝛼 1/ 𝛽 an der Oberfläche von Motoneuronen. Ein möglicher kompensatorischer Versuch durch erhöhte 𝛼1 Expression bleibt infolge der Funktionsbeeinträchtigung dieser mutierten GlyR- 𝛼 1 Rezeptoren erfolglos mit letalem Ausgang. In vorherigen Arbeiten wurde vermutet, dass die Mutation in der extrazellulären Bindungsstelle in der Lage ist, Konformationsänderungen in die TM3-TM4-Schleifenstruktur zu übertragen und dadurch die Gephyrin Bindung und synaptische Verankerung zu stören. Die Daten dieser Arbeit stützen diese Annahme und weisen darüber hinaus auf eine gestörte Rezeptorkomplexbindung hin. Die vorliegende Arbeit trägt somit zum besseren Verständnis der Startle Erkrankung auf synaptischer Ebene bei.
Motoneurons played an essential role in establishing the concept of target-mediated support of innervating neurons. However, it took several decades until molecules were identined which trophically support motoneurons in vitro and in vivo. The most potent molecule identined so far is ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF). It is expressed as a cytosolic molecule in myelinating Schwann cells rather than in skeletal muscle in the postnatal period and therefore does not qualify as a target-derived neurotrophic factor regulating motoneuron survival during embryonic development. However, the inactivation of CNTF by gene targeting experiments results in progressive atrophy and degeneration of motoneurons, demonstrating that CNTF plays an essential role as a maintenance factor for motoneurons postnatally. Secretory molecules which are expressed in skeletal muscle during embryonic development and which support motoneurons in culture and partially also in vivo include members of the NGF gene family (BDNF, NT-3, NT-4/S) , FGF-S, IGF-I, and UF. The evaluation of the physiological importance of these molecules is under investigation.
The transmission of proliferative and developmental signals from activated cell-surface receptors to initiation of cellular responses in the nucleus is synergically controlled by the coordinated action of a diverse set of intracellular signalling proteins. The Ras/Raf/MEK/MAPK signalling pathway has been shown to control the expression of genes which are crucial for the physiological regulation of cell proliferation, differentiation and apoptosis. Within this signalling cascade, the Raf protein family of serine/threonine kinases serves as a central intermediate which connects to many of other signal transduction pathways. To elucidate the signalling functions of the different Raf kinases in motoneurons during development, the expression, distribution and subcellular localization of Rafs in the spinal cord and the facial nucleus in brainstem of mice at various embryonic and postnatal stages were investigated. Moreover, we have investigated the intracellular redistribution of Raf molecules in isolated motoneurons from 13 or 14 day old mouse embryos, after addition or withdrawal of neurotrophic factors to induce Raf kinases activation in vitro. Furthermore, in order to investigate the potential anti-apoptotic function of Raf kinases on motoneurons, we isolated motoneurons from B-raf-/- and c-raf-1-/- mouse embryos and analysed the survival and differentiation effects of neurotrophic factors in motoneurons lacking B-Raf and c-Raf-1. We provide evidence here that all three Raf kinases are expressed in mouse spinal motoneurons. Their expression increases during the period of naturally occurring cell death of motoneurons. In sections of embryonic and postnatal spinal cord, motoneurons express exclusively B-Raf and c-Raf-1, but not A-Raf, and subcellularly Raf kinases are obviously colocalized with mitochondria. In isolated motoneurons, most of the B-Raf or c-Raf-1 immunoreactivity is located in the perinuclear space but also in the nucleus, especially after activation by addition of CNTF and BDNF in vitro. We found that c-Raf-1 translocation from the cytosol into the nucleus of motoneurons after its activation by neurotrophic factors is a distinct event. As a central finding of our study, we observed that the viability of isolated motoneurons from B-raf but not c-raf-1 knockout mice is lost even in the presence of CNTF and other neurotrophic factors. This indicates that B-Raf but not c-Raf-1, which is still present in B-raf deficient motoneurons, plays a crucial role in mediating the survival effect of neurotrophic factors during development. In order to prove that B-Raf is an essential player in this scenario, we have re-expressed B-Raf in mutant sensory and motor neurons by transfection. The motoneurons and the sensory neurons from B-raf knockout mouse which were transfected with exogenous B-raf gene revealed the same viability in the presence of neurotrophic factors as primary neurons from wild-type mice. Our results suggest that Raf kinases have important signalling functions in motoneurons in mouse CNS. In vitro, activation causes redistribution of Raf protein kinases, particularly for c-Raf-1, from motoneuronal cytoplasm into the nucleus. This redistribution of c-Raf-1, however, is not necessary for the survival effect of neurotrophic factors, given that B-raf-/- motor and sensory neurons can not survive despite the presence of c-Raf-1. We hypothesize that c-Raf-1 nuclear translocation may play a direct role in transcriptional regulation as a consequence of neurotrophic factor induced phosphorylation and activation of c-Raf-1 in motoneurons. Moreover, the identification of target genes for nuclear translocated c-Raf-1 and of specific cellular functions initiated by this mechanism awaits its characterization.
In mammals, a major fraction of the genome is transcribed as non-coding RNAs. An increasing amount of evidence has accumulated showing that non-coding RNAs play important roles both for normal cell function and in disease processes such as cancer or neurodegeneration. Interpreting the functions of non-coding RNAs and the molecular mechanisms through which they act is one of the most important challenges facing RNA biology today.
In my Ph.D. thesis, I have been investigating the role of 7SK, one of the most abundant non-coding RNAs, in the development and function of motoneurons. 7SK is a highly structured 331 nt RNA transcribed by RNA polymerase III. It forms four stem-loop (SL) structures that serve as binding sites for different proteins. Larp7 binds to SL4 and protects the 3' end from exonucleolytic degradation. SL1 serves as a binding site for HEXIM1, which recruits the pTEFb complex composed of CDK9 and cyclin T1. pTEFb has a stimulatory role for transcription and is regulated through sequestration by 7SK. More recently, a number of heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoproteins (hnRNPs) have been identified as 7SK interactors. One of these is hnRNP R, which has been shown to have a role in motoneuron development by regulating axon growth. Taken together, 7SK’s function involves interactions with RNA binding proteins, and different RNA binding proteins interact with different regions of 7SK, such that 7SK can be considered as a hub for recruitment and release of different proteins. The questions I have addressed during my Ph.D. are as follows: 1) which region of 7SK interacts with hnRNP R, a main interactor of 7SK? 2) What effects occur in motoneurons after the protein binding sites of 7SK are abolished? 3) Are there additional 7SK binding proteins that regulate the functions of the 7SK RNP?
Using in vitro and in vivo experiments, I found that hnRNP R binds both the SL1 and SL3 region of 7SK, and also that pTEFb cannot be recruited after deleting the SL1 region but is able to bind to a 7SK mutant with deletion of SL3. In order to answer the question of how the 7SK mutations affect axon outgrowth and elongation in mouse primary motoneurons, we proceeded to conduct rescue experiments in motoneurons by using lentiviral vectors. The constructs were designed to express 7SK deletion mutants under the mouse U6 promoter and at the same time to drive expression of a 7SK shRNA from an H1 promoter for the depletion of endogenous 7SK. Using this system we found that 7SK mutants harboring deletions of either SL1 or SL3 could not rescue the axon growth defect of 7SK-depleted motoneurons suggesting that 7SK/hnRNP R complexes are integral for this process.
In order to identify novel 7SK binding proteins and investigate their functions, I proceeded to conduct pull-down experiments by using a biotinylated RNA antisense oligonucleotide that targets the U17-C33 region of 7SK thereby purifying endogenous 7SK complexes. Following mass spectrometry of purified 7SK complexes, we identified a number of novel 7SK interactors. Among these is the Smn complex. Deficiency of the Smn complex causes the motoneuron disease spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) characterized by loss of lower motoneurons in the spinal cord. Smn has previously been shown to interact with hnRNP R. Accordingly, we found Smn as part of 7SK/hnRNP R complexes. These proteomics data suggest that 7SK potentially plays important roles in different signaling pathways in addition to transcription.
The P429L loss of function mutation of the human glycine transporter 2 associated with hyperekplexia
(2019)
Glycine transporter 2 (GlyT2) mutations across the entire sequence have been shown to represent the presynaptic component of the neurological disease hyperekplexia. Dominant, recessive and compound heterozygous mutations have been identified, most of them leading to impaired glycine uptake. Here, we identified a novel loss of function mutation of the GlyT2 resulting from an amino acid exchange of proline 429 to leucine in a family with both parents being heterozygous carriers. A homozygous child suffered from severe neuromotor deficits. We characterised the GlyT2P429L variant at the molecular, cellular and protein level. Functionality was determined by glycine uptake assays. Homology modelling revealed that the mutation localises to α‐helix 5, presumably disrupting the integrity of this α‐helix. GlyT2P429L shows protein trafficking through various intracellular compartments to the cellular surface. However, the protein expression at the whole cell level was significantly reduced. Although present at the cellular surface, GlyT2P429L demonstrated a loss of protein function. Coexpression of the mutant with the wild‐type protein, reflecting the situation in the parents, did not affect transporter function, thus explaining their non‐symptomatic phenotype. Nevertheless, when the mutant was expressed in excess compared with the wild‐type protein, glycine uptake was significantly reduced. Thus, these data demonstrate that the proline residue at position 429 is structurally important for the correct formation of α‐helix 5. The failure in functionality of the mutated GlyT2 is most probably due to structural changes localised in close proximity to the sodium‐binding site of the transporter.
The family of Cys-loop receptors (CLRs) shares a high degree of homology and sequence identity. The overall structural elements are highly conserved with a large extracellular domain (ECD) harboring an α-helix and 10 β-sheets. Following the ECD, four transmembrane domains (TMD) are connected by intracellular and extracellular loop structures. Except the TM3–4 loop, their length comprises 7–14 residues. The TM3–4 loop forms the largest part of the intracellular domain (ICD) and exhibits the most variable region between all CLRs. The ICD is defined by the TM3–4 loop together with the TM1–2 loop preceding the ion channel pore. During the last decade, crystallization approaches were successful for some members of the CLR family. To allow crystallization, the intracellular loop was in most structures replaced by a short linker present in prokaryotic CLRs. Therefore, no structural information about the large TM3–4 loop of CLRs including the glycine receptors (GlyRs) is available except for some basic stretches close to TM3 and TM4. The intracellular loop has been intensively studied with regard to functional aspects including desensitization, modulation of channel physiology by pharmacological substances, posttranslational modifications, and motifs important for trafficking. Furthermore, the ICD interacts with scaffold proteins enabling inhibitory synapse formation. This review focuses on attempts to define structural and functional elements within the ICD of GlyRs discussed with the background of protein-protein interactions and functional channel formation in the absence of the TM3–4 loop.
The cDNA for ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF), a polypeptide involved in the survival of motoneurons in mammals, has recently been cloned (Stöckli et al., Nature, 342, 920 - 923, 1989; Lin et al. Science, 246, 1023 - 1025, 1989). We have now localized the corresponding gene Cntf to chromosome 19 in the mouse, using an interspecific cross between Mus spretus and Mus musculus domesticus. The latter was carrying the gene wobbler (wr) for spinal muscular atrophy. DNA was prepared from backcross individuals and typed for the segregation of species-specific Cntf restriction fragments in relation to DNA markers of known chromosomal location. The M.spretus allele of Cntf cosegregated with chromosome 19 markers and mapped closely to Ly-1, to a region of mouse chromosome 19 with conserved synteny to human chromosome 11q. Cntf is not linked to wr, and the expression of CNTF mRNA and protein appears close to normal in facial and sciatic nerves, of affected (wr/wr) mice, suggesting that motoneuron degeneration of wobbler mice has its origin in defects other than reduced CNTF expression.
Ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF) is expressed in high quantities in Schwann cells of peripheral nerves during postnatal development of the rat. The absence of a hydrophobic leader sequence and the immunohistochemical localization of CNTF within the cytoplasm of these cells indicate that the factor might not be available to responsive neurons under physiological conditions. However, CNTF supports the survival of a variety of embryonic neurons, including spinal motoneurons in culture. Moreover we have recently demonstrated that the exogenous application of CNTF protein to the lesioned facial nerve of the newborn rat rescued these motoneurons from cell death. These results indicate that CNTF might indeed play a major role in assisting the survival of lesioned neurons in the adult peripheral nervous system. Here we demonstrate that the CNTF mRNA and protein levels and the manner in which they are regulated are compatible with such a function in lesioned peripheral neurons. In particular, immunohistochemical analysis showed significant quantities of CNTF at extracellular sites after sciatic nerve lesion. Western blots and determination of CNTF biological activity of the same nerve segments indicate that extracellular CNTF seems to be biologically active. After nerve lesion CNTF mRNA levels were reduced to <5 % in distal regions of the sciatic nerve whereas CNTF bioactivity decreased to only one third of the original before-lesion levels. A gradual reincrease in Schwann cells occurred concomitant with regeneration.
Synaptopathies: synaptic dysfunction in neurological disorders - a review from students to students
(2016)
Synapses are essential components of neurons and allow information to travel coordinately throughout the nervous system to adjust behavior to environmental stimuli and to control body functions, memories, and emotions. Thus, optimal synaptic communication is required for proper brain physiology, and slight perturbations of synapse function can lead to brain disorders. In fact, increasing evidence has demonstrated the relevance of synapse dysfunction as a major determinant of many neurological diseases. This notion has led to the concept of synaptopathies as brain diseases with synapse defects as shared pathogenic features. In this review, which was initiated at the 13th International Society for Neurochemistry Advanced School, we discuss basic concepts of synapse structure and function, and provide a critical view of how aberrant synapse physiology may contribute to neurodevelopmental disorders (autism, Down syndrome, startle disease, and epilepsy) as well as neurodegenerative disorders (Alzheimer and Parkinson disease). We finally discuss the appropriateness and potential implications of gathering synapse diseases under a single term. Understanding common causes and intrinsic differences in disease-associated synaptic dysfunction could offer novel clues toward synapse-based therapeutic intervention for neurological and neuropsychiatric disorders. In this Review, which was initiated at the 13th International Society for Neurochemistry (ISN) Advanced School, we discuss basic concepts of synapse structure and function, and provide a critical view of how aberrant synapse physiology may contribute to neurodevelopmental (autism, Down syndrome, startle disease, and epilepsy) as well as neurodegenerative disorders (Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases), gathered together under the term of synaptopathies. Read the Editorial Highlight for this article on page .
Learning and memory is considered to require synaptic plasticity at presynaptic specializations of neurons. Kenyon cells are the intrinsic neurons of the primary olfactory learning center in the brain of arthropods – the mushroom body neuropils. An olfactory mushroom body memory trace is supposed to be located at the presynapses of Kenyon cells. In the calyx, a sub-compartment of the mushroom bodies, Kenyon cell dendrites receive olfactory input provided via projection neurons. Their output synapses, however, were thought to reside exclusively along their axonal projections outside the calyx, in the mushroom body lobes. By means of high-resolution imaging and with novel transgenic tools, we showed that the calyx of the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster also comprised Kenyon cell presynapses. At these presynapses, synaptic vesicles were present, which were capable of neurotransmitter release upon stimulation. In addition, the newly identified Kenyon cell presynapses shared similarities with most other presynapses: their active zones, the sites of vesicle fusion, contained the proteins Bruchpilot and Syd-1. These proteins are part of the cytomatrix at the active zone, a scaffold controlling synaptic vesicle endo- and exocytosis. Kenyon cell presynapses were present in γ- and α/β-type KCs but not in α/β-type Kenyon cells.
The newly identified Kenyon cell derived presynapses in the calyx are candidate sites for an olfactory associative memory trace. We hypothesize that, as in mammals, recurrent neuronal activity might operate for memory retrieval in the fly olfactory system.
Moreover, we present evidence for structural synaptic plasticity in the mushroom body calyx. This is the first demonstration of synaptic plasticity in the central nervous system of Drosophila melanogaster. The volume of the mushroom body calyx can change according to changes in the environment. Also size and numbers of microglomeruli - sub-structures of the calyx, at which projection neurons contact Kenyon cells – can change. We investigated the synapses within the microglomeruli in detail by using new transgenic tools for visualizing presynaptic active zones and postsynaptic densities. Here, we could show, by disruption of the projection neuron - Kenyon cell circuit, that synapses of microglomeruli were subject to activity-dependent synaptic plasticity. Projection neurons that could not generate action potentials compensated their functional limitation by increasing the number of active zones per microglomerulus. Moreover, they built more and enlarged microglomeruli. Our data provide clear evidence for an activity-induced, structural synaptic plasticity as well as for the activity-induced reorganization of the olfactory circuitry in the mushroom body calyx.
Synapsin is an evolutionarily conserved presynaptic phosphoprotein. It is encoded by only one gene in the Drosophila genome and is expressed throughout the nervous system. It regulates the balance between reserve and releasable vesicles, is required to maintain transmission upon heavy demand, and is essential for proper memory function at the behavioral level. Task-relevant sensorimotor functions, however, remain intact in the absence of Synapsin. Using an odor-sugar reward associative learning paradigm in larval Drosophila, we show that memory scores in mutants lacking Synapsin (syn\(^{97}\)) are lower than in wild-type animals only when more salient, higher concentrations of odor or of the sugar reward are used. Furthermore, we show that Synapsin is selectively required for larval short-term memory. Thus, without Synapsin Drosophila larvae can learn and remember, but Synapsin is required to form memories that match in strength to event salience-in particular to a high saliency of odors, of rewards, or the salient recency of an event. We further show that the residual memory scores upon a lack of Synapsin are not further decreased by an additional lack of the Sap47 protein. In combination with mass spectrometry data showing an up-regulated phosphorylation of Synapsin in the larval nervous system upon a lack of Sap47, this is suggestive of a functional interdependence of Synapsin and Sap47.
Structural and functional modifications of synaptic connections (“synaptic plasticity”) are believed to mediate learning and memory processes. Thus, molecular mechanisms of how synapses assemble in both structural and functional terms are relevant for our understanding of neuronal development as well as the processes of learning and memory. Synapses form by an asymmetric association of highly specialized membrane domains: at the presynaptic active zone transmitter filled vesicles fuse, while transmitter receptors at the opposite postsynaptic density sense this signal. By genetic analysis, matrix proteins of active zones from various families have been shown to be important for fast vesicle fusion, and were suggested to contribute to synapse stability and assembly. The Sigrist lab in collaboration with the Buchner lab previously had shown that the large scaffold protein Bruchpilot (Brp) is essential for both the structural and functional integrity of active zones and for synaptic plasticity in Drosophila melanogaster. The work described in this thesis investigated several candidate proteins which appear to be involved in preand postsynaptic function, as summarized in the following: (1) DREP-2 (DEF45 related protein-2) had been found by co-immunoprecipitations with anti-Brp antibodies by Dr. Manuela Schmidt (unpublished data). Mutants and antibodies for the further study of DREP- 2 were generated in this thesis. Yeast two hybrid results suggest that DREP-2 might interact with dynein light chain 2, while in vivo imaging indicates that DREP-2 might be involved in bidirectional axonal transport. (2) Coimmunoprecipitation and pull down experiments suggested that the ARFGAP [ADP-ribosylation factor (ARF)-directed GTPase activating protein (GAP)] protein GIT (G-protein coupled receptor kinase interacting protein) could interact with the endocytosis associated molecule Stoned B (StnB). Mutants in the dgit gene showed an accumulation of large size vesicles, membrane intermediates and decreased vesicle density at the 3rd instar larval neuromuscular junction (NMJ) by electron microscopy (EM). The phenotypes accumulation of large size vesicles and membrane intermediates could be rescued partially by expression of Drosophila GIT (DGIT) or human GIT in dgit mutant background. Furthermore, by immunofluorescence the dgit mutant shows specifically decreased levels of StnB, which could be restored partially by the expression of DGIT. These results strongly support the suggestion that DGIT interacts with StnB, which is involved in the regulation of vesicle size, endocytosis or recycling of synaptic vesicles (SVs). Furthermore, the dgit mutants also showed signs of a mislocalization of the presynaptic protein Brp relative to the postsynaptic protein GluRIID, which could be rescued by expression of DGIT or human GIT in the dgit mutant background, but not by StnB. These results suggest that GIT on one hand executes roles in the regulation of synaptic vesicle endocytosis, but potentially also has structural roles for synapse assembly (3) Djm-1 is a candidate locus to mediate mental retardation in human patients when it is mutated. As a first step towards an understanding of the mechanistic role of DJM-1, Drosophila genetics were used to address DJM-1 function. So far, however, the djm-1 mutant generated in this thesis did not show a nervous system phenotype.
3D cell cultures allow a better mimicry of the biological and mechanical environment of cells in vivo compared to 2D cultures. However, 3D cell cultures have been challenging for ultrasoft tissues such as the brain. The present study uses a microfiber reinforcement approach combining mouse primary spinal cord neurons in Matrigel with melt electrowritten (MEW) frames. Within these 3D constructs, neuronal network development is followed for 21 days in vitro. To evaluate neuronal development in 3D constructs, the maturation of inhibitory glycinergic synapses is analyzed using protein expression, the complex mechanical properties by assessing nonlinearity, conditioning, and stress relaxation, and calcium imaging as readouts. Following adaptation to the 3D matrix-frame, mature inhibitory synapse formation is faster than in 2D demonstrated by a steep increase in glycine receptor expression between days 3 and 10. The 3D expression pattern of marker proteins at the inhibitory synapse and the mechanical properties resemble the situation in native spinal cord tissue. Moreover, 3D spinal cord neuronal networks exhibit intensive neuronal activity after 14 days in culture. The spinal cord cell culture model using ultrasoft matrix reinforced by MEW fibers provides a promising tool to study and understand biomechanical mechanisms in health and disease.
Survival motor neuron (SMN) is an essential and ubiquitously expressed protein that participates in several aspects of RNA metabolism. SMN deficiency causes a devastating motor neuron disease called spinal muscular atrophy (SMA). SMN forms the core of a protein complex localized at the cytoplasm and nuclear gems and that catalyzes spliceosomal snRNP particle synthesis. In cultured motor neurons, SMN is also present in dendrites and axons, and forms part of the ribonucleoprotein transport granules implicated in mRNA trafficking and local translation. Nevertheless, the distribution, regulation, and role of SMN at the axons and presynaptic motor terminals in vivo are still unclear. By using conventional confocal microscopy and STED super-resolution nanoscopy, we found that SMN appears in the form of granules distributed along motor axons at nerve terminals. Our fluorescence in situ hybridization and electron microscopy studies also confirmed the presence of β-actin mRNA, ribosomes, and polysomes in the presynaptic motor terminal, key elements of the protein synthesis machinery involved in local translation in this compartment. SMN granules co-localize with the microtubule-associated protein 1B (MAP1B) and neurofilaments, suggesting that the cytoskeleton participates in transporting and positioning the granules. We also found that, while SMN granules are physiologically downregulated at the presynaptic element during the period of postnatal maturation in wild-type (non-transgenic) mice, they accumulate in areas of neurofilament aggregation in SMA mice, suggesting that the high expression of SMN at the NMJ, together with the cytoskeletal defects, contribute to impairing the bi-directional traffic of proteins and organelles between the axon and the presynaptic terminal.
Neuste Studien haben ergeben, dass Asc-1 Knock-out Mäuse aufgrund einer verminderten intrazellulären Glycinkonzentration in synaptischen Boutons im Gehirn, einen Hyperekplexie-ähnlichen Phänotyp entwickeln. Aufgrund nicht vollständig geklärter Ursachen für die Entstehung des Krankheitsbildes der Hyperekplexie beim Menschen, wurde eine Kohorte von 51 Patienten zusammengetragen, um vor dem Hintergrund der Forschungsergebnisse zu Asc-1 im Tiermodell, das kodierende Gen beim Menschen SLC7A10 als mögliches Kandidatengen auf Sequenzalterationen zu untersuchen. Hierfür wurde aus Vollblut der an Hyperekplexie erkrankten Patienten genomische DNA isoliert, um mittels PCR und anschließendem Screening der Sequenzen, Mutationen innerhalb funktionell wichtiger Bereiche des Gens zu eruieren. Neben weiteren Sequenzunterschieden, die meist in Introns gefunden wurden, wurde die codierende Mutation G307R innerhalb von Exon 7 identifiziert, die letztendlich der Grund für eine Versuchsreihe war, um zu hinterfragen, ob dieser Aminosäureaustausch in der Proteinsequenz funktionelle Konsequenzen zur Folge hat. HEK293-Zellen wurden mit dem zuvor hergestellten Klon G307R transfiziert, um über Biotinylierung, immuncytochemische Färbungen und funktionelle Untersuchungen die Aktivität des Transporters zu beurteilen. Hier zeigte sich ein Funktionsverlust von über 95 %, bei uneingeschränkter Oberflächenexpression. ASC-1 bestätigt sich damit als neue Ursache in der Ausprägung von Hyperekplexie. Ferner können Zusammenhänge mit geistiger Retardierung und eingeschränkter neuronaler Plastizität bestehen.
Naturally occurring compounds such as sesquiterpenes and sesquiterpenoids (SQTs) have been shown to modulate GABA\(_{A}\) receptors (GABA\(_{A}\)Rs). In this study, the modulatory potential of 11 SQTs at GABA\(_{A}\)Rs was analyzed to characterize their potential neurotropic activity. Transfected HEK293 cells and primary hippocampal neurons were functionally investigated using electrophysiological whole-cell recordings. Significantly different effects of β-caryophyllene and α-humulene, as well as their respective derivatives β-caryolanol and humulol, were observed in the HEK293 cell system. In neurons, the concomitant presence of phasic and tonic GABA\(_{A}\)R configurations accounts for differences in receptor modulation by SQTs. The in vivo presence of the γ\(_{2}\) and δ subunits is important for SQT modulation. While phasic GABA\(_{A}\) receptors in hippocampal neurons exhibited significantly altered GABA-evoked current amplitudes in the presence of humulol and guaiol, negative allosteric potential at recombinantly expressed α\(_{1}\)β\(_{2}\)γ\(_{2}\) receptors was only verified for humolol. Modeling and docking studies provided support for the binding of SQTs to the neurosteroid-binding site of the GABA\(_{A}\)R localized between transmembrane segments 1 and 3 at the (\(^{+}\)α)-(\(^{-}\)α) interface. In sum, differences in the modulation of GABA\(_{A}\)R isoforms between SQTs were identified. Another finding is that our results provide an indication that nutritional digestion affects the neurotropic potential of natural compounds.
Diabetic polyneuropathy (DPN) is the most common complication in diabetes and can be painful in up to 26% of all diabetic patients. Peripheral nerves are shielded by the blood-nerve barrier (BNB) consisting of the perineurium and endoneurial vessels. So far, there are conflicting results regarding the role and function of the BNB in the pathophysiology of DPN. In this study, we analyzed the spatiotemporal tight junction protein profile, barrier permeability, and vessel-associated macrophages in Wistar rats with streptozotocin-induced DPN. In these rats, mechanical hypersensitivity developed after 2 weeks and loss of motor function after 8 weeks, while the BNB and the blood-DRG barrier were leakier for small, but not for large molecules after 8 weeks only. The blood-spinal cord barrier remained sealed throughout the observation period. No gross changes in tight junction protein or cytokine expression were observed in all barriers to blood. However, expression of Cldn1 mRNA in perineurium was specifically downregulated in conjunction with weaker vessel-associated macrophage shielding of the BNB. Our results underline the role of specific tight junction proteins and BNB breakdown in DPN maintenance and differentiate DPN from traumatic nerve injury. Targeting claudins and sealing the BNB could stabilize pain and prevent further nerve damage.
Neurotrophic factor signaling modulates differentiation, axon growth and maintenance, synaptic plasticity and regeneration of neurons after injury. Ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF), a Schwann cell derived neurotrophic factor, has an exclusive role in axon maintenance, sprouting and synaptic preservation. CNTF, but not GDNF, has been shown to alleviate motoneuron degeneration in pmn mutant mice carrying a missense mutation in Tbce gene, a model for Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS). This current study elucidates the distinct signaling mechanism by which CNTF rescues the axonal degeneration in pmn mutant mice. ...
Dopaminergic neurons in the brain of the Drosophila larva play a key role in mediating reward information to the mushroom bodies during appetitive olfactory learning and memory. Using optogenetic activation of Kenyon cells we provide evidence that recurrent signaling exists between Kenyon cells and dopaminergic neurons of the primary protocerebral anterior (pPAM) cluster. Optogenetic activation of Kenyon cells paired with odor stimulation is sufficient to induce appetitive memory. Simultaneous impairment of the dopaminergic pPAM neurons abolishes appetitive memory expression. Thus, we argue that dopaminergic pPAM neurons mediate reward information to the Kenyon cells, and in turn receive feedback from Kenyon cells. We further show that this feedback signaling is dependent on short neuropeptide F, but not on acetylcholine known to be important for odor-shock memories in adult flies. Our data suggest that recurrent signaling routes within the larval mushroom body circuitry may represent a mechanism subserving memory stabilization.
Animal models point towards a key role of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in mediating exercise-induced structural and functional changes in the hippocampus. Recently, also platelet derived growth factor-C (PDGF-C) has been shown to promote blood vessel growth and neuronal survival. Moreover, reductions of these neurotrophic and angiogenic factors in old age have been related to hippocampal atrophy, decreased vascularization and cognitive decline. In a 3-month aerobic exercise study, forty healthy older humans (60 to 77 years) were pseudo-randomly assigned to either an aerobic exercise group (indoor treadmill, n = 21) or to a control group (indoor progressive-muscle relaxation/stretching, n = 19). As reported recently, we found evidence for fitness-related perfusion changes of the aged human hippocampus that were closely linked to changes in episodic memory function. Here, we test whether peripheral levels of BDNF, IGF-I, VEGF or PDGF-C are related to changes in hippocampal blood flow, volume and memory performance. Growth factor levels were not significantly affected by exercise, and their changes were not related to changes in fitness or perfusion. However, changes in IGF-I levels were positively correlated with hippocampal volume changes (derived by manual volumetry and voxel-based morphometry) and late verbal recall performance, a relationship that seemed to be independent of fitness, perfusion or their changes over time. These preliminary findings link IGF-I levels to hippocampal volume changes and putatively hippocampus-dependent memory changes that seem to occur over time independently of exercise. We discuss methodological shortcomings of our study and potential differences in the temporal dynamics of how IGF-1, VEGF and BDNF may be affected by exercise and to what extent these differences may have led to the negative findings reported here.
3D neuronal cultures attempt to better replicate the in vivo environment to study neurological/neurodegenerative diseases compared to 2D models. A challenge to establish 3D neuron culture models is the low elastic modulus (30–500 Pa) of the native brain. Here, an ultra-soft matrix based on thiolated hyaluronic acid (HA-SH) reinforced with a microfiber frame is formulated and used. Hyaluronic acid represents an essential component of the brain extracellular matrix (ECM). Box-shaped frames with a microfiber spacing of 200 µm composed of 10-layers of poly(ɛ-caprolactone) (PCL) microfibers (9.7 ± 0.2 µm) made via melt electrowriting (MEW) are used to reinforce the HA-SH matrix which has an elastic modulus of 95 Pa. The neuronal viability is low in pure HA-SH matrix, however, when astrocytes are pre-seeded below this reinforced construct, they significantly support neuronal survival, network formation quantified by neurite length, and neuronal firing shown by Ca\(^{2+}\) imaging. The astrocyte-seeded HA-SH matrix is able to match the neuronal viability to the level of Matrigel, a gold standard matrix for neuronal culture for over two decades. Thus, this 3D MEW frame reinforced HA-SH composite with neurons and astrocytes constitutes a reliable and reproducible system to further study brain diseases.
Neurotrophin signaling via receptor tyrosine kinases is essential for the development and function of the nervous system in vertebrates. TrkB activation and signaling show substantial differences to other receptor tyrosine kinases of the Trk family that mediate the responses to nerve growth factor and neurotrophin-3. Growing evidence suggests that TrkB cell surface expression is highly regulated and determines the sensitivity of neurons to brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). This translocation of TrkB depends on co-factors and modulators of cAMP levels, N-glycosylation, and receptor transactivation. This process can occur in very short time periods and the resulting rapid modulation of target cell sensitivity to BDNF could represent a mechanism for fine-tuning of synaptic plasticity and communication in complex neuronal networks. This review focuses on those modulatory mechanisms in neurons that regulate responsiveness to BDNF via control of TrkB surface expression.
Ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF) is a potent survival molecule for a variety of embryonic neurons in culture. The developmental expression of CNTF occurs clearly after the time period of the physiological cell death of CNTF-responsive neurons. This, together with the sites of expression, excludes CNTF as a target-derived neuronal survival factor, at least in rodents. However, CNTF also participates in the induction of type 2 astrocyte differentiation in vitro. Here we demonstrate that the time course of the expression of CNTF-mRNA and protein in the rat optic nerve (as evaluated by quantitative Northern blot analysis and biological activity, respectively) is compatible with such a glial differentiation function of CNTF in vivo. We also show that the type 2 astrocyte-inducing- activity previously demonstrated in optic nerve extract can be precipitated by an antiserum against CNTF. Immunohistochemical analysis of astrocytes in vitro and in vivo demonstrates that the expression of CNTF is confined to a subpopulation of type 1 astrocytes. The olfactory bulb of adult rats has comparably high levels of CNTF to the optic nerve, and here again, CNTF-immunoreactivity is localized in a subpopulation of astrocytes. However, the postnatal expression of CNTF in the olfactory bulb occurs later than in the optic nerve. In other brain regions both CNTF-mRNA and protein levels are much lower.
The nervous system is shielded by special barriers. Nerve injury results in blood–nerve barrier breakdown with downregulation of certain tight junction proteins accompanying the painful neuropathic phenotype. The dorsal root ganglion (DRG) consists of a neuron-rich region (NRR, somata of somatosensory and nociceptive neurons) and a fibre-rich region (FRR), and their putative epi-/perineurium (EPN). Here, we analysed blood–DRG barrier (BDB) properties in these physiologically distinct regions in Wistar rats after chronic constriction injury (CCI). Cldn5, Cldn12, and Tjp1 (rats) mRNA were downregulated 1 week after traumatic nerve injury. Claudin-1 immunoreactivity (IR) found in the EPN, claudin-19-IR in the FRR, and ZO-1-IR in FRR-EPN were unaltered after CCI. However, laser-assisted, vessel specific qPCR, and IR studies confirmed a significant loss of claudin-5 in the NRR. The NRR was three-times more permeable compared to the FRR for high and low molecular weight markers. NRR permeability was not further increased 1-week after CCI, but significantly more CD68\(^+\) macrophages had migrated into the NRR. In summary, NRR and FRR are different in naïve rats. Short-term traumatic nerve injury leaves the already highly permeable BDB in the NRR unaltered for small and large molecules. Claudin-5 is downregulated in the NRR. This could facilitate macrophage invasion, and thereby neuronal sensitisation and hyperalgesia. Targeting the stabilisation of claudin-5 in microvessels and the BDB barrier could be a future approach for neuropathic pain therapy.
The structure of the rat ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF) gene and the regulation ofCNTF mRNA levels in cultured glial cells were investigated. The rat mRNA is encoded by a simple two-exon transcription unit. Sequence analysis of the region upstream of the transcription start-site did not reveal a typical TATA-box consensus sequence. Low levels of CNTF mRNA were detected in cultured Schwann cells, and CNTF mRNA was not increased by a variety of treatments. Three-week-old astrocyteenriched cell cultures from new-born rat brain contained easily detectable CNTF mRNA. In astrocyte-enriched cultures, upregulation of CNTF mRNA levels was observed after treatment with IFN-gamma. CNTF mRNA levels were down-regulated in these cells by treatments that elevate intracellular cyclic AMP and by members of the fibroblast growth factor (FGF) family. The implications of these results for potential in vivo functions of CNTF are discussed.
Although evidence obtained with the PC12 cell line has suggested a role for the ras oncogene proteins in the signal transduction of nerve growth factor-mediated fiber outgrowth, little is known about the signal transduction mechanisms involved in the neuronal response to neurotrophic factors in nontransformed cells. We report here that the oncogene protein T24-ras, when introduced into the cytoplasm of freshly dissociated chick embryonic neurons, promotes the in vitro survival and neurite outgrowth of nerve growth factor-responsive dorsal rootganglion neurons, brain-derived neurotrophic factor-responsive nodose ganglion neurons, and ciliary neuronotrophic factor-responsive ciliary ganglion neurons. The proto-oncogene product c-Ha-ras also promotes neuronal survival, albeit less strongly. No effect could be observed with truncated counterparts of T24-ras and c-Ha-ras lacking the 23 C-terminal amino acids including the membrane-an-choring, palmityl-accepting cysteine. These results sug-gest a generalized involvement of ras or ras-like proteins in the intracellular signal transduction pathway for neurotrophic factors.
At early developmental stages (embryonic day 7, E7), chick paravertebral sympathetic ganglia contain a cell population that divides in culture while expressing various neuronal properties. In an attempt to identify factors that control neuronal proliferation, we found that ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF) specifically inhibits the proliferation of those cells expressing neuronal markers. In addition, CNTF affects the differentiation of sympathetic ganglion cells by inducing the expression of vasoactive intestinal peptide immunoreactivity (VIP-IR). After 1 day in culture, tyrosine hydroxylase immunoreactivity (TH-I R) was expressed by about 86% of the cells whereas VIP-IR was virtually absent. In the presence of CNTF, 50%-60% of the cells expressed VIP-IR after 4 days in culture; however, none of the cells expressed VIP-IR in the absence of CNTF. These results, and the demonstration of cells that express both VIP and TH-IR, indicate that VIP is induced in cells that initially express tyrosine hydroxylase. The findings suggest a potential role for CNTF as a factor affecting the proliferation and differentiation of developing sympathetic neurons.
Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is caused by deficiency of the ubiquitously expressed survival motoneuron (SMN) protein. SMN is crucial component of a complex for the assembly of spliceosomal small nuclear ribonucleoprotein (snRNP) particles. Other cellular functions of SMN are less characterized so far. SMA predominantly affects lower motoneurons, but the cellular basis for this relative specificity is still unknown. In contrast to nonneuronal cells where the protein is mainly localized in perinuclear regions and the nucleus, Smn is also present in dendrites, axons and axonal growth cones of isolated motoneurons in vitro. However, this distribution has not been shown in vivo and it is not clear whether Smn and hnRNP R are also present in presynaptic axon terminals of motoneurons in postnatal mice. Smn also associates with components not included in the classical SMN complex like RNA-binding proteins FUS, TDP43, HuD and hnRNP R which are involved in RNA processing, subcellular localization and translation. We show here that Smn and hnRNP R are present in presynaptic compartments at neuromuscular endplates of embryonic and postnatal mice. Smn and hnRNP R are localized in close proximity to each other in axons and axon terminals both in vitro and in vivo. We also provide new evidence for a direct interaction of Smn and hnRNP R in vitro and in vivo, particularly in the cytosol of motoneurons. These data point to functions of SMN beyond snRNP assembly which could be crucial for recruitment and transport of RNA particles into axons and axon terminals, a mechanism which may contribute to SMA pathogenesis.
Autophagy-mediated degradation of synaptic components maintains synaptic homeostasis but also constitutes a mechanism of neurodegeneration. It is unclear how autophagy of synaptic vesicles and components of presynaptic active zones is regulated. Here, we show that Pleckstrin homology containing family member 5 (Plekhg5) modulates autophagy of synaptic vesicles in axon terminals of motoneurons via its function as a guanine exchange factor for Rab26, a small GTPase that specifically directs synaptic vesicles to preautophagosomal structures. Plekhg5 gene inactivation in mice results in a late-onset motoneuron disease, characterized by degeneration of axon terminals. Plekhg5-depleted cultured motoneurons show defective axon growth and impaired autophagy of synaptic vesicles, which can be rescued by constitutively active Rab26. These findings define a mechanism for regulating autophagy in neurons that specifically targets synaptic vesicles. Disruption of this mechanism may contribute to the pathophysiology of several forms of motoneuron disease.
The progressive motor neuropathy (PMN) mouse is a model of an inherited motor neuropathy disease with progressive neurodegeneration. Axon degeneration associates with homozygous mutations of the TBCE gene encoding the tubulin chaperone E protein. TBCE is responsible for the correct dimerization of alpha and beta-tubulin. Strikingly, the PMN mouse also develops a progressive hearing loss after normal hearing onset, characterized by degeneration of the auditory nerve and outer hair cell (OHC) loss. However, the development of this neuronal and cochlear pathology is not fully understood yet. Previous studies with pegylated insulin-like growth factor 1 (peg-IGF-1) treatment in this mouse model have been shown to expand lifespan, weight, muscle strength, and motor coordination. Accordingly, peg-IGF-1 was evaluated for an otoprotective effect. We investigated the effect of peg-IGF-1 on the auditory system by treatment starting at postnatal day 15 (p15). Histological analysis revealed positive effects on OHC synapses of medial olivocochlear (MOC) neuronal fibers and a short-term attenuation of OHC loss. Peg-IGF-1 was able to conditionally restore the disorganization of OHC synapses and maintain the provision of cholinergic acetyltransferase in presynapses. To assess auditory function, frequency-specific auditory brainstem responses and distortion product otoacoustic emissions were recorded in animals on p21 and p28. However, despite the positive effect on MOC fibers and OHC, no restoration of hearing could be achieved. The present work demonstrates that the synaptic pathology of efferent MOC fibers in PMN mice represents a particular form of “efferent auditory neuropathy.” Peg-IGF-1 showed an otoprotective effect by preventing the degeneration of OHCs and efferent synapses. However, enhanced efforts are needed to optimize the treatment to obtain detectable improvements in hearing performances.
Aktuell herrscht in der Wissenschaft Unklarheit über die pathologischen Prozesse, die durch Caspr2-aAK ausgelöst werden. Dissens herrscht, ob es durch die aAK im Serum oder im Liquor zu einer Internalisierung von an der Zellmembran exprimierten Caspr2 kommt. Ebenso ist nicht abschließend geklärt, inwieweit die Struktur des VGKC durch die aAK-Bindung verändert wird.
Mit der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden Untersuchungen zum Pathomechanismus von Caspr2-aAK vorgenommen, indem die Oberflächenexpression von Caspr2 in DRGs im Langzeitversuch näher untersucht wurde. Dafür wurden zunächst die Caspr2-aAK in den Patientenseren mithilfe immunzytochemischer Färbungen in vitro sowohl in transfizierten HEK293, als auch in adulten DRGs nachgewiesen. Zusätzlich wurde mit der Membranpräparation von Caspr2 transfizierten HEK293-Zellen die Caspr2 Bindung mittels proteinbiochemischen Nachweises verifiziert.
Es wurde zudem eine Subklassenbestimmung an den 9 vorliegenden Patientenseren und einer Probe mit aufgereinigtem IgG durchgeführt. Die dominante Subklasse war IgG4 was mit dem wissenschaftlichen Forschungsstand kongruiert, dass IgG4 bei Caspr2-aAK der dominierende Subtyp ist.
Im Langzeitversuch zur Untersuchung einer möglichen Internalisierung von Caspr2 durch die Inkubation in Caspr2-aAK positiven Seren wurden in vitro kultivierte DRGs adulter Mäuse für 24h, 48h, bzw. 96 h mit den Seren konfrontiert. Zusätzlich wurde überprüft wie sich ein Rescue der Zellen – nach 48 h wurde das Caspr2-aAK positive Serum gegen ein Caspr2-negatives Serum für weitere 48 h ausgetauscht – auf die Oberflächenexpression auswirkt. Zur Überprüfung der Dichte des an der Zellmembran exprimierten Caspr2 Proteins wurde diese abschließend quantifiziert und statistisch ausgewertet. Zusammenfassend ließ sich bei keinem der untersuchten Seren eine signifikante Veränderung der Caspr2 Oberflächenexpression erkennen.
Mit diesen Ergebnissen konnte gezeigt werden, dass eine vorübergehende Erniedrigung/Erhöhung der Caspr2 Expression nach Inkubation mit aAK durch primäre DRG Neurone kompensiert wird und eine erhöhte Internalisierung nicht als ursächlich für den Pathomechanismus der Caspr2-aAK in Frage kommt.
Within the lipidome oxidized phospholipids (OxPL) form a class of chemically highly reactive metabolites. OxPL are acutely produced in inflamed tissue and act as endogenous, proalgesic (pain-inducing) metabolites. They excite sensory, nociceptive neurons by activating transient receptor potential ion channels, specifically TRPA1 and TRPV1. Under inflammatory conditions, OxPL-mediated receptor potentials even potentiate the action potential firing rate of nociceptors. Targeting OxPL with D-4F, an apolipoprotein A-I mimetic peptide or antibodies like E06, specifically binding oxidized headgroups of phospholipids, can be used to control acute, inflammatory pain syndromes, at least in rodents. With a focus on proalgesic specificities of OxPL, this article discusses, how targeting defined substances of the epilipidome can contribute to mechanism-based therapies against primary and secondary chronic inflammatory or possibly also neuropathic pain.
Non-steroidal antiinflammatory drugs are most commonly used for inflammatory and postoperative pain. But they lack effectiveness and specificity, leading to severe side effects, like gastric ulcers, asthma and severe bleeding. Oxidized 1-palmitoyl-2-arachinidonoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (OxPAPC) plays an important role in inflammatory pain. PAPC is a common phosphatidylcholine of membranes, which can be oxidized by reactive oxygen species. In preliminary experiments, our group found that local injection of OxPAPC in rat paws induces hyperalgesia.
In this study we examined the effect of OxPAPC on transient receptor potential A1 (TRPA1), an ion channel expressed in C-fiber neurons. Furthermore, we investigated if intracellular cysteine residues of TRPA1 were necessary for agonist-channel-interactions and if a subsequent TRPA1 activation could be prevented by OxPAPC scavengers.
To answer these questions, we performed calcium imaging using HEK-293 cells stably expressing hTRPA1, or transiently expressing the triple mutant channel hTRPA1-3C and naïve DRG neurons. Cells were incubated with the ratiometric, fluorescent dye Fura-2/AM and stimulated with OxPAPC. The change of light emission after excitation with 340 and 380 nm wavelengths allowed conclusions regarding changes of intracellular calcium concentrations after TRPA1 activation.
In our investigation we proved evidence that OxPAPC activates TRPA1, which caused a flow of calcium ions into the cytoplasm. The TRPA1-specific channel blocker HC-030031 eliminated this agonist-induced response. TRPA1-3C was not completely sensitive to OxPAPC. The peptide D-4F and the monoclonal antibody E06 neutralized OxPAPC-induced TRPA1 activation.
In this work, the importance of OxPAPC as a key mediator of inflammatory pain and as a promising target for drug design is highlighted. Our results indicate that TRPA1 activation by OxPAPC involves cysteine-dependent mechanisms, but there are other, cysteine-independent activation mechanisms as well. Potential pharmaceuticals for the treatment of inflammatory pain are D-4F and E06, whose efficiency has recently been confirmed in the animal model by our research group.
The amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) neurodegenerative disorder has been associated with multiple genetic lesions, including mutations in the gene for fused in sarcoma (FUS), a nuclear-localized RNA/DNA-binding protein. Neuronal expression of the pathological form of FUS proteins in Caenorhabditis elegans results in mislocalization and aggregation of FUS in the cytoplasm, and leads to impairment of motility. However, the mechanisms by which the mutant FUS disrupts neuronal health and function remain unclear. Here we investigated the impact of ALS-associated FUS on motor neuron health using correlative light and electron microscopy, electron tomography, and electrophysiology. We show that ectopic expression of wild-type or ALS-associated human FUS impairs synaptic vesicle docking at neuromuscular junctions. ALS-associated FUS led to the emergence of a population of large, electron-dense, and filament-filled endosomes. Electrophysiological recording revealed reduced transmission from motor neurons to muscles. Together, these results suggest a pathological effect of ALS-causing FUS at synaptic structure and function organization.
Startle disease is a rare disorder associated with mutations in GLRA1 and GLRB, encoding glycine receptor (GlyR) α1 and β subunits, which enable fast synaptic inhibitory transmission in the spinal cord and brainstem. The GlyR β subunit is important for synaptic localization via interactions with gephyrin and contributes to agonist binding and ion channel conductance. Here, we have studied three GLRB missense mutations, Y252S, S321F, and A455P, identified in startle disease patients. For Y252S in M1 a disrupted stacking interaction with surrounding aromatic residues in M3 and M4 is suggested which is accompanied by an increased EC\(_{50}\) value. By contrast, S321F in M3 might stabilize stacking interactions with aromatic residues in M1 and M4. No significant differences in glycine potency or efficacy were observed for S321F. The A455P variant was not predicted to impact on subunit folding but surprisingly displayed increased maximal currents which were not accompanied by enhanced surface expression, suggesting that A455P is a gain-of-function mutation. All three GlyR β variants are trafficked effectively with the α1 subunit through intracellular compartments and inserted into the cellular membrane. In vivo, the GlyR β subunit is transported together with α1 and the scaffolding protein gephyrin to synaptic sites. The interaction of these proteins was studied using eGFP-gephyrin, forming cytosolic aggregates in non-neuronal cells. eGFP-gephyrin and β subunit co-expression resulted in the recruitment of both wild-type and mutant GlyR β subunits to gephyrin aggregates. However, a significantly lower number of GlyR β aggregates was observed for Y252S, while for mutants S321F and A455P, the area and the perimeter of GlyR β subunit aggregates was increased in comparison to wild-type β. Transfection of hippocampal neurons confirmed differences in GlyR-gephyrin clustering with Y252S and A455P, leading to a significant reduction in GlyR β-positive synapses. Although none of the mutations studied is directly located within the gephyrin-binding motif in the GlyR β M3-M4 loop, we suggest that structural changes within the GlyR β subunit result in differences in GlyR β-gephyrin interactions. Hence, we conclude that loss- or gain-of-function, or alterations in synaptic GlyR clustering may underlie disease pathology in startle disease patients carrying GLRB mutations.
Introduction
The neuronal ceroid lipofuscinoses constitute a group of fatal inherited lysosomal storage diseases that manifest in profound neurodegeneration in the CNS. Visual impairment usually is an early symptom and selective degeneration of retinal neurons has been described in patients suffering from distinct disease subtypes. We have previously demonstrated that palmitoyl protein thioesterase 1 deficient (Ppt1-/-) mice, a model of the infantile disease subtype, exhibit progressive axonal degeneration in the optic nerve and loss of retinal ganglion cells, faithfully reflecting disease severity in the CNS. Here we performed spectral domain optical coherence tomography (OCT) in Ppt1-/- and ceroid lipofuscinosis neuronal 3 deficient (Cln3-/-) mice, which are models of infantile and juvenile neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis, respectively, in order to establish a non-invasive method to assess retinal alterations and monitor disease severity in vivo.
Results
Blue laser autofluorescence imaging revealed increased accumulation of autofluorescent storage material in the inner retinae of 7-month-old Ppt1-/- and of 16-month-old Cln3-/- mice in comparison with age-matched control littermates. Additionally, optical coherence tomography demonstrated reduced thickness of retinae in knockout mice in comparison with age-matched control littermates. High resolution scans and manual measurements allowed for separation of different retinal composite layers and revealed a thinning of layers in the inner retinae of both mouse models at distinct ages. OCT measurements correlated well with subsequent histological analysis of the same retinae.
Conclusions
These results demonstrate the feasibility of OCT to assess neurodegenerative disease severity in mouse models of neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis and might have important implications for diagnostic evaluation of disease progression and therapeutic efficacy in patients. Moreover, the non-invasive method allows for longitudinal studies in experimental models, reducing the number of animals used for research.
In spinal muscular atrophy (SMA), mutations in or loss of the Survival Motor Neuron 1 (SMN1) gene reduce full-length SMN protein levels, which leads to the degeneration of a percentage of motor neurons. In mouse models of SMA, the development and maintenance of spinal motor neurons and the neuromuscular junction (NMJ) function are altered. Since nifedipine is known to be neuroprotective and increases neurotransmission in nerve terminals, we investigated its effects on cultured spinal cord motor neurons and motor nerve terminals of control and SMA mice. We found that application of nifedipine increased the frequency of spontaneous Ca\(^{2+}\) transients, growth cone size, cluster-like formations of Cav2.2 channels, and it normalized axon extension in SMA neurons in culture. At the NMJ, nifedipine significantly increased evoked and spontaneous release at low-frequency stimulation in both genotypes. High-strength stimulation revealed that nifedipine increased the size of the readily releasable pool (RRP) of vesicles in control but not SMA mice. These findings provide experimental evidence about the ability of nifedipine to prevent the appearance of developmental defects in SMA embryonic motor neurons in culture and reveal to which extent nifedipine could still increase neurotransmission at the NMJ in SMA mice under different functional demands.
Motoneuron diseases represent a m&jor challenge to modern neurology, yet their clinical manifestations ware first described more than hundred years ago, and despite many studies the etiology of these diseases ramd,ns obscure with no effective treatments having been reported. Although progress has been made in establishing genetic linkage in the rare inherited for.ms of these diseases such as familial amyotrophic lateral scleriosisl , spinal mDscular atrophy and X-linked bulbo-spinal-mDscular atrophy, this new information has not yet affected therapeutic techniques. During the last few years several important steps have been taken concerning the physiological mechanisms involved in motoneuron survival during development, after lesion and in animal models of degenerative diseases, the molecular clOning of several new neurotrophic factors (brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNP), neurotrophin-3 and-4 (NT-3 and NT-4) and ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTP)); the identification of a gene family of receptor molecules for same of these factors, progress in the understanding of the effects of polypeptide growth factors on muscle cell differentiation, neuronal sprouting (insulin-like growth factor-I and -11 (IGF-I and IGF-II), and in vitro motoneuronal survival (CNTF, IGF-I and -II and basic FGF). These findings have raised new hopes in that they could lead to a better understanding of the pathophysiological processes underlying these diseases, and that the pharmacological use of same of these newly characterized neurotrophic factors could present new possibilities for the treatment of these diseases.
Neurotrophe Faktoren haben ein breites Aufgabenfeld und spielen eine wichtige Rolle als Überlebensfaktoren embryonaler Neurone, bei Proliferation und Differenzierung im Nervensystem sowie als Modulatoren synaptischer Plastizität. Im ersten Themenkomplex der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden neurotrophe Faktoren als Modulatoren synaptischer Plastizität und ihr Einfluß auf die BDNF-Regulation im Hippocampus untersucht. Dabei wurde zunächst das selbsthergestellte polyclonale BDNF-Immunserum für die Anwendung in der Immunhistochemie und im Western Blot optimiert, doch es konnten bezüglich BDNF keine Veränderungen in Hippocampi CNTF-defizienter Mäuse gegenüber Wildtyp-Tieren festgestellt werden. Die Ergebnisse der Voruntersuchungen, die im Hippocampus CNTF-defizienter Tiere verminderte BDNF-Level gezeigt hatten, konnten somit nicht verifiziert werden. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurde an CNTF-defizienten Mäusen eine eingeschränkte LTP und LTD nachgewiesen. Zum besseren Verständnis der – laut LTP-Untersuchungen – veränderten Situation an der hippocampalen CA1-Synapse bei CNTF-defizienten Tieren wurden elektronenmikroskopische Bilder dieser Region angefertigt, deren Auswertung keine augenscheinlichen Unterschiede ergab. Im Stratum radiatum der CA1-Region war zudem keine spezifische CNTF-Färbung nachweisbar. Zur Klärung der Frage, ob es IGF-vermittelt nach Training zu hippocampaler BDNF-Hochregulation kommt, wurden Laufradexperimente mit wildtypischen und konditionalen IGF1-Rezeptor-knockout Mäusen durchgeführt und die jeweiligen BDNF-Level untersucht. Dabei wurde BDNF durch Laufradtraining in beiden Genotypen in ähnlichem Maße hochreguliert, was für alternative Wege der BDNF-Hochregulation spricht. Der zweite Themenkomplex befasste sich mit dem Einfluß neurotropher Faktoren auf die Proliferation und Differenzierung in Hippocampus und Cortex. BrdU-Inkorporationsexperimenten zeigten in der Körnerzellschicht des Gyrus dentatus gesteigerte Proliferationsraten bei CNTF-defizienten und CNTF&LIF-defizienten Mäusen, wobei LIF-defiziente Tiere keine veränderten Proliferationsraten zeigten. Untersuchungen an Kulturen cortikaler Vorläuferzellen bestätigten die Hypothese, wonach cortikale Vorläuferzellen zunächst Neurone bilden, die einen Faktor sezernieren, der auf die cortikalen Vorläuferzellen wirkt und sie zur Bildung von Astrozyten veranlasst. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass CT-1 der Hypothese folgend in vitro und in vivo für die Einleitung der Astrozytogenese im Cortex verantwortlich ist.
Neurofilament depletion improves microtubule dynamics via modulation of Stat3/stathmin signaling
(2016)
In neurons, microtubules form a dense array within axons, and the stability and function of this microtubule network is modulated by neurofilaments. Accumulation of neurofilaments has been observed in several forms of neurodegenerative diseases, but the mechanisms how elevated neurofilament levels destabilize axons are unknown so far. Here, we show that increased neurofilament expression in motor nerves of pmn mutant mice, a model of motoneuron disease, causes disturbed microtubule dynamics. The disease is caused by a point mutation in the tubulin-specific chaperone E (Tbce) gene, leading to an exchange of the most C-terminal amino acid tryptophan to glycine. As a consequence, the TBCE protein becomes instable which then results in destabilization of axonal microtubules and defects in axonal transport, in particular in motoneurons. Depletion of neurofilament increases the number and regrowth of microtubules in pmn mutant motoneurons and restores axon elongation. This effect is mediated by interaction of neurofilament with the stathmin complex. Accumulating neurofilaments associate with stathmin in axons of pmn mutant motoneurons. Depletion of neurofilament by Nefl knockout increases Stat3-stathmin interaction and stabilizes the microtubules in pmn mutant motoneurons. Consequently, counteracting enhanced neurofilament expression improves axonal maintenance and prolongs survival of pmn mutant mice. We propose that this mechanism could also be relevant for other neurodegenerative diseases in which neurofilament accumulation and loss of microtubules are prominent features.
Neurodegeneration by α-synuclein-specific T cells in AAV-A53T-α-synuclein Parkinson’s disease mice
(2022)
Background
Antigen-specific neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration are characteristic for neuroimmunological diseases. In Parkinson’s disease (PD) pathogenesis, α-synuclein is a known culprit. Evidence for α-synuclein-specific T cell responses was recently obtained in PD. Still, a causative link between these α-synuclein responses and dopaminergic neurodegeneration had been lacking. We thus addressed the functional relevance of α-synuclein-specific immune responses in PD in a mouse model.
Methods
We utilized a mouse model of PD in which an Adeno-associated Vector 1/2 serotype (AAV1/2) expressing human mutated A53T-α-Synuclein was stereotactically injected into the substantia nigra (SN) of either wildtype C57BL/6 or Recombination-activating gene 1 (RAG1)\(^{-/-}\) mice. Brain, spleen, and lymph node tissues from different time points following injection were then analyzed via FACS, cytokine bead assay, immunohistochemistry and RNA-sequencing to determine the role of T cells and inflammation in this model. Bone marrow transfer from either CD4\(^{+}\)/CD8\(^{-}\), CD4\(^{-}\)/CD8\(^{+}\), or CD4\(^{+}\)/CD8\(^{+}\) (JHD\(^{-/-}\)) mice into the RAG-1\(^{-/-}\) mice was also employed. In addition to the in vivo studies, a newly developed A53T-α-synuclein-expressing neuronal cell culture/immune cell assay was utilized.
Results
AAV-based overexpression of pathogenic human A53T-α-synuclein in dopaminergic neurons of the SN stimulated T cell infiltration. RNA-sequencing of immune cells from PD mouse brains confirmed a pro-inflammatory gene profile. T cell responses were directed against A53T-α-synuclein-peptides in the vicinity of position 53 (68–78) and surrounding the pathogenically relevant S129 (120–134). T cells were required for α-synuclein-induced neurodegeneration in vivo and in vitro, while B cell deficiency did not protect from dopaminergic neurodegeneration.
Conclusions
Using T cell and/or B cell deficient mice and a newly developed A53T-α-synuclein-expressing neuronal cell culture/immune cell assay, we confirmed in vivo and in vitro that pathogenic α-synuclein peptide-specific T cell responses can cause dopaminergic neurodegeneration and thereby contribute to PD-like pathology.
The purpose of the experiments reported is to provide an unambiguous demonstration that embryonie skeletal muscle contains factors that act directly on embryonie spinal motor neurons both to support their survival and to stimulate the outgrowth of neurites. Cells of lumbar and brachial ventral spinal cords from 6-day-old chick embryos were separated by centrifugation in a two-step metrizamide gradient, and a motor neuron enriched fraction was obtained. Motor neurons were identified by retrogradely labeling with rhodamine isothiocyanate, and were enriched fourfold in the motor neuron fraction relative to unfractionated cells. In culture, the isolated motor neurons died within 3-4 days unless they were supplemented with embryonie chick skeletal muscle extract. Two functionally distinct entities separable by ammonium sulfate precipitation were responsible for the effects of muscle extracts on motor neurons. The 0-25% ammonium sulfate precipitate contained molecules that alone bad no effect on neuronal survival but when bound to polyornithine-coated culture substrata, stimulated neurite outgrowth and potentiated the survival activity present in muscle. Most of this activity was due to a laminin-like molecule being immunoprecipitated with antisera against laminin, and immunoblotting demonstrated the presence of both the A and B chains of laminin. A long-term survival activity resided in the 25-70% ammonium sulfate fraction, and its apparent total and specific activities were strongly dependent on the culture substrate. In contrast to the motor neurons, the cells from the other metrizamide fraction (including neuronal cells) could be kept in culture for a prolonged time without addition of exogenous factor(s).
Cerebellar granule cell (CGC) apoptosis by trophic/potassium (TK) deprivation is a model of election to study the interplay of pro-apoptotic and pro-survival signaling pathways in neuronal cell death. In this model, the c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) induces pro-apoptotic genes through the c-Jun/activator protein 1 (AP-1) transcription factor. On the other side, a survival pathway initiated by lithium leads to repression of pro-apoptotic c-Jun/AP-1 target genes without interfering with JNK activity. Yet, the mechanism by which lithium inhibits c-Jun activity remains to be elucidated. Here, we used this model system to study the regulation and function of site-specific c-Jun phosphorylation at the S63 and T91/T93 JNK sites in neuronal cell death. We found that TK-deprivation led to c-Jun multiphosphorylation at all three JNK sites. However, immunofluorescence analysis of c-Jun phosphorylation at single cell level revealed that the S63 site was phosphorylated in all c-Jun-expressing cells, whereas the response of T91/T93 phosphorylation was more sensitive, mirroring the switch-like apoptotic response of CGCs. Conversely, lithium prevented T91T93 phosphorylation and cell death without affecting the S63 site, suggesting that T91T93 phosphorylation triggers c-Jun pro-apoptotic activity. Accordingly, a c-Jun mutant lacking the T95 priming site for T91/93 phosphorylation protected CGCs from apoptosis, whereas it was able to induce neurite outgrowth in PC12 cells. Vice versa, a c-Jun mutant bearing aspartate substitution of T95 overwhelmed lithium-mediate protection of CGCs from TK-deprivation, validating that inhibition of T91/T93/T95 phosphorylation underlies the effect of lithium on cell death. Mass spectrometry analysis confirmed multiphosphorylation of c-Jun at T91/T93/T95 in cells. Moreover, JNK phosphorylated recombinant c-Jun at T91/T93 in a T95-dependent manner. On the basis of our results, we propose that T91/T93/T95 multiphosphorylation of c-Jun functions as a sensitivity amplifier of the JNK cascade, setting the threshold for c-Jun pro-apoptotic activity in neuronal cells.
We showed previously that oligodendrocytes and their precursors require continuous signalling by protein trophic factors to avoid programmed cell death in culture. Here we show that three classes of such trophic factors promote oligodendrocyte survival in vitro: (1) insulin and insulin-like growth factors (IGFs), (2) neurotrophins, particularly neurotrophin-3 (NT -3), and (3) ciliary-neurotrophic factor (CNTF), leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) and interleukin 6 (IL-6). A single factor, or combinations of factors within the same class, promote only short-term survival of oligodendrocytes and their precursors, while combinations of factors from different classes promote survival additively. Long-term survival of oligodendrocytes in vitro requires at least one factor from each class, suggesting that multiple signals may be required for long-term oligodendrocyte survival in vivo. We also show that CNTF promotes oligodendrocyte survival in vivo, that platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) can promote the survival of oligodendrocyte precursors in vitro by acting on a novel, very high affinity PDGF receptor, and that, in addition to its effect on survival, NT-3 is a potent mitogen for oligodendrocyte precursor cells.
More on motor neurons
(1992)
CILIARY neurotrophic factor (CNTF) was originally characterized as a survival factor for chick ciliary neurons in vitro. More recently, it was shown to promote the survival of a variety of otherneuronal cell types and to affect the differentiation of E7 chick sympathetic neurons by inhibiting their proliferation and by inducing the expression of yasoactiYe intestinal peptide immunoreactiyity (VIP-IR). In cultures of dissociated sympathetic neurons from newborn rats, CNTF induces cholinergic differentiation as shown by increased levels of choline acetyltransferase (ChAT.
Die Spinale Muskelatrophie (SMA) ist eine häufige autosomal-rezessiv vererbte Erkrankung des motorischen Nervensystems bei Kindern. Ursache der Degeneration von spinalen Motoneuronen ist der homozygote Verlust des SMN- (survival of motoneuron) Gens und ein dadurch bedingter Mangel an SMN-Protein. Untersuchungen an Motoneuronen von Smn-defizienten Mäusen ergaben Störungen des axonalen Längenwachstums aufgrund einer Fehlverteilung des Zytoskelettproteins beta-Aktin und seiner mRNA in den Axonterminalen. Das Axonwachstum wird durch Aktin-Polymerisierung im Wachstumskegel gesteuert. beta-Aktin-mRNA findet sich auch in Axonen, und die lokale Proteinsynthese kann durch neuronale Aktivierung gesteigert werden. Das SMN-Protein ist am axonalen Transport von beta-Aktin beteiligt. In der vorliegenden Arbeit ergaben Western Blot-Analysen in neuralen Stammzellen (NSC) sowie spinalen Motoneuronen in vitro eine Steigerung der SMN-Proteinexpression durch 8-CPT-cAMP. Zur Untersuchung der Auswirkungen der erhöhten SMN-Proteinmenge auf die Pathologie der Motoneurone wurde ein in-vitro-Assay entwickelt, mit dessen Hilfe gezeigt werden konnte, dass eine Behandlung mit 100 µM 8-CPT-cAMP die axonalen Veränderungen isolierter embryonaler Smn-defizienter Motoneurone kompensieren kann. Motoneurone von 14 Tage alten Smn-defizienten und Kontroll-Mausembryonen wurden über sieben Tage hinweg auf einer Matrix aus Poly-Ornithin und Laminin-111 bzw. Laminin-121/221 kultiviert und mit 100µM cAMP und neurotrophen Faktoren behandelt. Nach Fixierung wurden die Zellen mit Antikörpern gegen Islet-1/2, tau und beta-Aktin gefärbt, mit Hilfe eines konfokalen Mikroskops fotografiert und digital vermessen. 8-CPT-cAMP erhöht den beta-Aktin-Gehalt in den axonalen Wachstumskegeln von Smn-defizienten Motoneuronen. Die Größe der Wachstumskegel nimmt durch die Behandlung um das 2-3fache zu und erreicht normale Werte. Auf Laminin-111 bleibt das Längenwachstum der Axone durch 100µM 8-CPT-cAMP unbeeinflusst, auf Laminin-121/221 wird das Längenwachstum normalisiert. Die beta-Aktin-Verteilung innerhalb der Axone und Wachstumskegel von Smn-defizienten Motoneuronen erscheint durch die cAMP-Behandlung nahezu normalisiert. Die Wiederherstellung der beta-Aktin-Verteilung in Wachstumskegeln durch cAMP kann große Auswirkungen auf die Funktionalität der Motoneurone haben. Die Ergebnisse sind möglicherweise ein erster Schritt auf dem Weg zu einer Therapie für die Spinale Muskelatrophie.
Terpenoids are major subcomponents in aroma substances which harbor sedative physiological potential. We have demonstrated that various monoterpenoids such as the acyclic linalool enhance GABAergic currents in an allosteric manner in vitro upon overexpression of inhibitory α1β2 GABA\(_{A}\) receptors in various expression systems. However, in plants or humans, i.e., following intake via inhalation or ingestion, linalool undergoes metabolic modifications including oxygenation and acetylation, which may affect the modulatory efficacy of the generated linalool derivatives. Here, we analyzed the modulatory potential of linalool derivatives at α1β2γ2 GABA\(_{A}\) receptors upon transient overexpression. Following receptor expression control, electrophysiological recordings in a whole cell configuration were used to determine the chloride influx upon co-application of GABA EC\(_{10-30}\) together with the modulatory substance. Our results show that only oxygenated linalool metabolites at carbon 8 positively affect GABAergic currents whereas derivatives hydroxylated or carboxylated at carbon 8 were rather ineffective. Acetylated linalool derivatives resulted in non-significant changes of GABAergic currents. We can conclude that metabolism of linalool reduces its positive allosteric potential at GABAA receptors compared to the significant potentiation effects of the parent molecule linalool itself.
Inflammation is crucial in the pathophysiology of stroke and thus a promising therapeutic target. High-frequency stimulation (HFS) of the mesencephalic locomotor region (MLR) reduces perilesional inflammation after photothrombotic stroke (PTS). However, the underlying mechanism is not completely understood. Since distinct neural and immune cells respond to electrical stimulation by releasing acetylcholine, we hypothesize that HFS might trigger the cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway via activation of the α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (α7nAchR). To test this hypothesis, rats underwent PTS and implantation of a microelectrode into the MLR. Three hours after intervention, either HFS or sham-stimulation of the MLR was applied for 24 h. IFN-γ, TNF-α, and IL-1α were quantified by cytometric bead array. Choline acetyltransferase (ChAT)\(^+\) CD4\(^+\)-cells and α7nAchR\(^+\)-cells were quantified visually using immunohistochemistry. Phosphorylation of NFĸB, ERK1/2, Akt, and Stat3 was determined by Western blot analyses. IFN-γ, TNF-α, and IL-1α were decreased in the perilesional area of stimulated rats compared to controls. The number of ChAT\(^+\) CD4\(^+\)-cells increased after MLR-HFS, whereas the amount of α7nAchR\(^+\)-cells was similar in both groups. Phospho-ERK1/2 was reduced significantly in stimulated rats. The present study suggests that MLR-HFS may trigger anti-inflammatory processes within the perilesional area by modulating the cholinergic system, probably via activation of the α7nAchR.
The survival and functional maintenance of spinal motoneurons, both during the period of developmental cell death and in adulthood, have been shown to be dependent on trophic factors. In vitro experiments have previously been used to identify several survival factors for motoneurons, including CNTF, UF, and members of the neurotrophin, FGF, and IGF gene families. Some of these factors have also been shown to be active in vivo, either on chick motoneurons during embryonic development or on lesioned facial and spinal motoneurons of the newborn rat. Here we demonstrate that lesioned newborn rat facial motoneurons can be rescued by NT-4/5, IGF-I, and UF. Furthermore, in contrast to chick motoneurons, the survival of isolated embryonic rat motoneurons can be maintained by the neurotrophins BDNF, NT-3, and NT-4/5. IGF-I and FGF-5 were also active in this system, each supporting more than 50% of the originally plated neurons. The responsiveness of motoneurons to multiple factors in vitro and in vivo suggests that motoneuron survival and function are regulated by the coordinated actions of members of different gene families.
Objective
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a growing challenge worldwide, which is why the search for early-onset predictors must be focused as soon as possible. Longitudinal studies that investigate courses of neuropsychological and other variables screen for such predictors correlated to mild cognitive impairment (MCI). However, one often neglected issue in analyses of such studies is measurement invariance (MI), which is often assumed but not tested for. This study uses the absence of MI (non-MI) and latent factor scores instead of composite variables to assess properties of cognitive domains, compensation mechanisms, and their predictability to establish a method for a more comprehensive understanding of pathological cognitive decline.
Methods
An exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and a set of increasingly restricted confirmatory factor analyses (CFAs) were conducted to find latent factors, compared them with the composite approach, and to test for longitudinal (partial-)MI in a neuropsychiatric test battery, consisting of 14 test variables. A total of 330 elderly (mean age: 73.78 ± 1.52 years at baseline) were analyzed two times (3 years apart).
Results
EFA revealed a four-factor model representing declarative memory, attention, working memory, and visual–spatial processing. Based on CFA, an accurate model was estimated across both measurement timepoints. Partial non-MI was found for parameters such as loadings, test- and latent factor intercepts as well as latent factor variances. The latent factor approach was preferable to the composite approach.
Conclusion
The overall assessment of non-MI latent factors may pose a possible target for this field of research. Hence, the non-MI of variances indicated variables that are especially suited for the prediction of pathological cognitive decline, while non-MI of intercepts indicated general aging-related decline. As a result, the sole assessment of MI may help distinguish pathological from normative aging processes and additionally may reveal compensatory neuropsychological mechanisms.
Neurons critically rely on the functions of RNA-binding proteins to maintain their polarity and resistance to neurotoxic stress. HnRNP R has a diverse range of post-transcriptional regulatory functions and is important for neuronal development by regulating axon growth. Hnrnpr pre-mRNA undergoes alternative splicing giving rise to a full-length protein and a shorter isoform lacking its N-terminal acidic domain. To investigate functions selectively associated with the full-length hnRNP R isoform, we generated a Hnrnpr knockout mouse (Hnrnpr\(^{tm1a/tm1a}\)) in which expression of full-length hnRNP R was abolished while production of the truncated hnRNP R isoform was retained. Motoneurons cultured from Hnrnpr\(^{tm1a/tm1a}\) mice did not show any axonal growth defects but exhibited enhanced accumulation of double-strand breaks and an impaired DNA damage response upon exposure to genotoxic agents. Proteomic analysis of the hnRNP R interactome revealed the multifunctional protein Yb1 as a top interactor. Yb1-depleted motoneurons were defective in DNA damage repair. We show that Yb1 is recruited to chromatin upon DNA damage where it interacts with gamma-H2AX, a mechanism that is dependent on full-length hnRNP R. Our findings thus suggest a novel role of hnRNP R in maintaining genomic integrity and highlight the function of its N-terminal acidic domain in this context.
Motoneurons are highly compartmentalized cells with very long extensions that separate their nerve terminals from cell bodies. To maintain their extensive morphological complexity and protect their cellular integrity from neurotoxic stresses, neurons rely on the functions of RNA-binding proteins. One such protein is hnRNP R, a multifunctional protein with a plethora of roles related to RNA metabolism that comes into play in the nervous system. hnRNP R is localized mainly in the nucleus but also exists in the cytoplasm and axons of motoneurons. Increasing in vitro evidence indicates a potential function of hnRNP R in the development and maintenance of motoneurons by regulating axon growth and axonal RNA transport. Additionally, hnRNP R interacts with several proteins involved in motoneuron diseases. Hnrnpr pre-mRNA undergoes alternative splicing to produce transcripts encoding two protein isoforms: a full-length protein (hnRNP R-FL) and a shorter form lacking the N-terminal acidic domain (hnRNP R-ΔN). While the neuronal defects produced by total hnRNP R depletion have been investigated before, the contribution of individual isoforms towards such functions has remained mostly unknown.
In this study, we showed that while both isoforms are expressed across multiple tissues, the full-length isoform is particularly abundant in the nervous system. We generated a mouse model for selective knockout of the full-length hnRNP R isoform (Hnrnprtm1a/tm1a) and found that the hnRNP R-∆N isoform remains expressed in these mice and is upregulated in a compensatory post-transcriptional process. We found that the truncated isoform is sufficient to support subcellular RNA transport related to axon growth in primary motoneurons. However, Hnrnprtm1a/tm1a mice show defects in DNA damage repair after exposure to γ-irradiation and etoposide. Knock down of both hnRNP R isoforms showed a similar extent of DNA damage as for motoneurons depleted of just full-length hnRNP R. Rescue experiments showed that expression of full-length hnRNP R but not of hnRNP R-ΔN can restore DNA damage repair when endogenous hnRNP R is depleted. By performing subcellular fractionation, we found that hnRNP R associates with chromatin independently from its association with pre-mRNA. Interestingly, we show that hnRNP R interacts with phosphorylated histone H2AX (γ-H2AX), following DNA damage. Proteomics analysis identifies the multifunctional protein Y-box binding protein 1 (Yb1) as one of the top interacting partners of hnRNP R. Similar to loss of full-length hnRNP R, DNA damage repair was impaired upon knockdown of Yb1 in motoneurons. Finally, we show that following exposure to γ-irradiation, Yb1 is recruited to the chromatin where it interacts with γ-H2AX, a mechanism that is dependent on the full-length hnRNP R.
Taken together, this study describes a novel function of the full-length isoform of hnRNP R in maintaining the genomic integrity of motoneurons and provides new mechanistic insights into its function in DNA damage response.
1. Zusammenfassung
Während der Embryogenese und nach Verletzungen von Nerven regulieren neurotrophe Faktoren Signalwege für Apoptose, Differenzierung, Wachstum und Regeneration von Neuronen. In vivo Experimente an neugeborenen Nagern haben gezeigt, dass der Verlust von Motoneuronen nach peripherer Nervenläsion durch die Behandlung mit GDNF, BDNF, und CNTF reduziert werden kann In der pmn-Mausmutante, einem Modell für die Amyotrophe Lateralsklerose, führt die Gabe von CNTF, nicht aber von GDNF zu einem verzögerten Krankheitsbeginn und einem verlangsamten Fortschreiten der Motoneuronendegeneration. Auslöser der Motoneuronendegeneration in der pmn-Maus ist eine Mutation im Tubulin spezifischen Chaperon E (Tbce) Gen, das für eines von fünf Tubulin spezifischen Chaperonen (TBCA-TBCE) kodiert und an der Bildung von -Tubulinheterodimeren beteiligt ist. Diese Arbeit sollte dazu beitragen, die CNTF-induzierten Signalwege zu entschlüsseln, die sich lindernd auf den progredienten Verlauf der Motoneuronendegeneration in der pmn-Maus auswirken.
Primäre pmn mutierte Motoneurone zeigen ein reduziertes Axonwachstum und eine erhöhte Anzahl axonaler Schwellungen mit einer anomalen Häufung von Mitochondrien - ein frühes Erkennungsmerkmal bei ALS-Patienten. Die Applikation von CNTF nicht aber von BDNF oder GDNF, kann in vitro die beobachteten Wachstumsdefekte und das bidirektionale axonale Transportdefizit in pmn mutierten Motoneurone verhindern.
Aus älteren Untersuchungen war bekannt, dass CNTF über den dreiteiligen transmembranen Rezeptorkomplex, bestehend aus CNTFR, LIFR und gp130, Januskinasen aktiviert, die STAT3 an Tyrosin 705 phosphorylieren (pSTAT3Y705). Ich konnte beobachten, dass axonales fluoreszenzmarkiertes pSTAT3Y705 nach CNTF-Gabe nicht retrograd in den Nukleus transportiert wird. Stattdessen führt die CNTF-induzierte Phosphorylierung von STAT3 an Tyrosin 705 zu einer transkriptionsunabhängigen lokalen Reaktion im Axon. Diese pSTAT3Y705 abhängige Reaktion ist notwendig und ausreichend, um das reduzierte Axonwachstum pmn mutierter Motoneurone zu beheben. Wie die Kombination einer CNTF Behandlung mit dem shRNA vermittelten knock-down von Stathmin in pmn mutierten Motoneuronen zeigt, zielt die CNTF-STAT3 Signalkaskade auf die Stabilisierung axonaler Mikrotubuli ab und wirkt sich positiv auf die anterograde und retrograde Mobilität von axonalen Mitochondrien aus.
Interessanter Weise konnte ich außerdem feststellen, dass eine akute Gabe von CNTF das mitochondriale Membranpotential in Axonen primärer pmn mutierter und wildtypischer
Motoneurone erhöht und einen Anstieg von ATP auslöst. Meine Beobachtungen legen nahe, dass CNTF unerwarteter Weise auch eine transiente Phosphorylierung an STAT3 Serin 727 (pSTAT3S727) auslöst, die zur anschließenden Translokation von pSTAT3S727 in Mitochondrien führt. Diese Ergebnisse zeigen, dass STAT3 mehrere lokale Ziele im Axon besitzt, nämlich axonale Mikrotubuli und Mitochondrien.
Leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) and Ciliary Neurotrophic factor (CNTF) are members of the interleukin-6 family of cytokines, defined by use of the gp130 molecule as an obligate receptor. In the murine experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) model, antagonism of LIF and genetic deletion of CNTF worsen disease. The potential mechanism of action of these cytokines in EAE is complex, as gp130 is expressed by all neural cells, and could involve immuno-modulation, reduction of oligodendrocyte injury, neuronal protection, or a combination of these actions. In this study we aim to investigate whether the beneficial effects of CNTF/LIF signalling in EAE are associated with axonal protection; and whether this requires signalling through oligodendrocytes. We induced MOG\(_{35-55}\) EAE in CNTF, LIF and double knockout mice. On a CNTF null background, LIF knockout was associated with increased EAE severity (EAE grade 2.1\(\pm\)0.14 vs 2.6\(\pm\)0.19; P<0.05). These mice also showed increased axonal damage relative to LIF heterozygous mice, as indicated by decreased optic nerve parallel diffusivity on MRI (1540\(\pm\)207 \(\mu\)m\(^2\)-/s vs 1310\(\pm\)175 \(\mu\)m\(^2\)-/s; P<0.05), and optic nerve (-12.5%) and spinal cord (-16%) axon densities; and increased serum neurofilament-H levels (2.5 fold increase). No differences in inflammatory cell numbers or peripheral auto-immune T-cell priming were evident. Oligodendrocyte-targeted gp130 knockout mice showed that disruption of CNTF/LIF signalling in these cells has no effect on acute EAE severity. These studies demonstrate that endogenous CNTF and LIF act centrally to protect axons from acute inflammatory destruction via an oligodendrocyte-independent mechanism.
Keeping the balance: the noncoding RNA 7SK as a master regulator for neuron development and function
(2021)
The noncoding RNA 7SK is a critical regulator of transcription by adjusting the activity of the kinase complex P-TEFb. Release of P-TEFb from 7SK stimulates transcription at many genes by promoting productive elongation. Conversely, P-TEFb sequestration by 7SK inhibits transcription. Recent studies have shown that 7SK functions are particularly important for neuron development and maintenance and it can thus be hypothesized that 7SK is at the center of many signaling pathways contributing to neuron function. 7SK activates neuronal gene expression programs that are key for terminal differentiation of neurons. Proteomics studies revealed a complex protein interactome of 7SK that includes several RNA-binding proteins. Some of these novel 7SK subcomplexes exert non-canonical cytosolic functions in neurons by regulating axonal mRNA transport and fine-tuning spliceosome production in response to transcription alterations. Thus, a picture emerges according to which 7SK acts as a multi-functional RNA scaffold that is integral for neuron homeostasis.
The ability of nerve growth factor to cause rapid activation of the Na+K+ pump of its responsive cells was examined by measuring the uptake of 86Rb+. A significant increase in 86Rb+ uptake in Ea chick dorsal root ganglion sensory neurons after NGF treatment was seen only if the cells had been damaged during the preparation procedure. Such damaged cells could not survive in culture in the presence of NGF, and undamaged cells that did survive in response to NGF exhibited no increased 86Rb+ uptake rate. Furthermore, cultured calf adrenal medullary cells did not show an increase in 86Rb+ uptake after treatment with NGF, although these cells respond to NGF with an increased synthesis of catecholaminergic enzymes. These results are incompatible with the hypothesis that the mechanism of action of NGF that promotes neuronal survival and enzyme induction results from an initial stimulation of the Na+K+ pump.
Investigations into the Pathogenic Antibody-Antigen-Interference of Glycine Receptor Autoantibodies
(2021)
Anti-glycine receptor (GlyR) autoantibodies belong to the novel group of autoantibodies that target neuronal cell-surface antigens (NCS), which are accompanied with various neurologic and neuropsychiatric conditions. The inhibitory ionotropic GlyR is one of the major inhibitory neurotransmitter receptors and therefore involved in maintaining homeostasis of neuronal excitation levels at brain stem and spinal cord. Anti-GlyR autoantibodies are associated with progressive encephalomyelitis with rigidity and myoclonus or stiff person syndrome. These neuromotor disorders are characterized by exaggerated startle, muscle stiffness, and painful spasms, leading to immobility and fatal outcome in some cases. It was hypothesized that imbalance of motoneuronal inhibition by functional impairment of GlyR and receptor internalization are direct consequences of antibody-antigen interference. Here, serum samples of four patients were tested for anti-GlyR autoantibodies and were used for the analysis of the functional impact on the electrophysiological properties of recombinant GlyRs, transiently expressed in HEK293 cells. Furthermore, the recognition pattern of anti- GlyR autoantibodies to human, zebrafish and chimeric GlyRα1 located the epitope to the far N-terminal region. The pathogenicity of anti-GlyR autoantibodies and thereby the autoimmunologic etiology of the disease was confirmed by passive transfer of patient serum to zebrafish (Danio rerio) larvae, that yielded an abnormal escape response – a brain stem reflex that corresponds to the exaggerated startle of afflicted patients. The phenotype was accompanied by profound reduction of GlyR clusters in spinal cord cryosections of treated zebrafish larvae. Together, these novel insights into the pathogenicity of GlyR autoantibodies confirm the concept of a novel neurologic autoimmune disease and might contribute to the development of innovative therapeutic strategies.
The tropomysin receptor kinase B (TrkB), the receptor for the neurotrophin brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), plays an important role in neuronal survival, neuronal differentiation, and cellular plasticity. Conventionally, TrkB activation is induced by binding of BDNF at extracellular sites and subsequent dimerization of receptor monomers. Classical Trk signaling concepts have failed to explain ligand-independent signaling of intracellular TrkB or oncogenic NTRK-fusion proteins. The intracellular activation domain of TrkB consists of a tyrosine kinase core, with three tyrosine (Y) residues at positions 701, 705 and 706, that catalyzes the phosphorylation reaction between ATPγ and tyrosine. The release of cisautoinhibition of the kinase domain activates the kinase domain and tyrosine residues outside of the catalytic domain become phosphorylated. The aim of this study was to find out how ligand-independent activation of TrkB is brought about. With the help of phosphorylation mutants of TrkB, it has been found that a high, local abundance of the receptor is sufficient to activate TrkB in a ligand-independent manner. This self-activation of TrkB was blocked when either the ATP-binding site or Y705 in the core domain was mutated. The vast majority of this self-active TrkB was found at intracellular locations and was preferentially seen in roundish cells, lacking filopodia. Live cell imaging of actin dynamics showed that self-active TrkB changed the cellular morphology by reducing actin filopodia formation. Signaling cascade analysis confirmed that self-active TrkB is a powerful activator of focal adhesion kinase (FAK). This might be the reason why self-active TrkB is able to disrupt actin filopodia formation. The signaling axis from Y705 to FAK could be mimicked by expression of the soluble, cytosolic TrkB kinase domain. However, the signaling pathway was inactive, when the TrkB kinase domain was targeted to the plasmamembrane with the help of artificial myristoylation membrane anchors. A cancer-related intracellular NTRK2-fusion protein (SQSTM1-NTRK2) also underwent constitutive kinase activation. In glioblastoma-like U87MG cells, self-active TrkB kinase reduced cell migration. These constitutive signaling pathways could be fully blocked within minutes by clinically approved, anti-tumorigenic Trk inhibitors. Moreover, this study found evidences for constitutively active, intracellular TrkB in tissue of human grade IV glioblastoma. In conclusion, the data provide an explanation and biological function for selfactive, constitutive TrkB kinase domain signaling, in the absence of a ligand.
Gene expression requires tight coordination of the molecular machineries that mediate transcription and splicing. While the interplay between transcription kinetics and spliceosome fidelity has been investigated before, less is known about mechanisms regulating the assembly of the spliceosomal machinery in response to transcription changes. Here, we report an association of the Smn complex, which mediates spliceosomal snRNP biogenesis, with the 7SK complex involved in transcriptional regulation. We found that Smn interacts with the 7SK core components Larp7 and Mepce and specifically associates with 7SK subcomplexes containing hnRNP R. The association between Smn and 7SK complexes is enhanced upon transcriptional inhibition leading to reduced production of snRNPs. Taken together, our findings reveal a functional association of Smn and 7SK complexes that is governed by global changes in transcription. Thus, in addition to its canonical nuclear role in transcriptional regulation, 7SK has cytosolic functions in fine-tuning spliceosome production according to transcriptional demand.
In the face of threat, animals react with a defensive reaction to avoid or reduce harm. This defensive reaction encompasses apart from behavioral changes also physiological, analgetic, and endocrine adaptations. Nonetheless, most animal studies on fear and anxiety are based on behavioral observations only, disregarding other aspects of the defensive reaction, or integrating their inter-related dynamics only insufficiently. The first part of this thesis aimed in characterizing patterned associations of behavioral and physiological responses, termed integrated defensive states. Analyzing cardiac and behavioral responses in mice undergoing multiple fear and anxiety paradigms revealed a complex and dynamic interaction of those readouts on both, short and long timescales. Microstates, stereotypical combinations of i.e. freezing and decelerating heart rates, are short-lasting and were, in turn, shown to be influenced by slow acting macrostate changes. One of those higher order macrostates, called `rigidity`, was defined as a latent process that constrains the range of momentary displayed heart rate values. Furthermore, integrated defensive states were found to be highly dependent on the cue and the context the animals are confronted with. Importantly, same behavioral observations, i.e. freezing, were associated with distinct cardiac responses, highlighting the importance of multivariate analysis of integrated defensive states. Defensive states are orchestrated by the brain, which has evolved evolutionary conserved survival circuits. A central brain area of these circuits is the periaqueductal gray (PAG) in the midbrain. It plays a pivotal role in mediating defensive states, as it receives signals about external and internal information from multiple brain regions and sends information to both, higher order brain areas as well as to the brainstem ultimately causing the execution of threat responses. In the second part of this thesis, different neuronal circuit elements in the PAG were optically manipulated in order to gain mechanistic insight into the defense network in the brain underlying the previously delineated cardio-behavioral defensive states. Optical activation of glutamatergic PAG neurons evoked heterogeneous, light-intensity dependent responses. However, a further molecular restriction of the glutamatergic neuronal population targeting only Chx10+ neurons, led to a cardio-behavioral state that resembled spontaneous freezing-bradycardia bouts.
In summary, this thesis presents a multivariate description of defensive states, which includes the complex interaction of cardiac and behavioral responses on different timescales and, furthermore, functionally dissects different excitatory and inhibitory PAG circuit elements mediating these defensive states.
The synapse-associated protein of 47 kDa (Sap47) in Drosophila melanogaster is the founding member of a phylogenetically conserved protein family of hitherto unknown molecular function. Sap47 is localized throughout the entire neuropil of adult and larval brains and closely associated with glutamatergic presynaptic vesicles of larval motoneurons. Flies lacking the protein are viable and fertile and do not exhibit gross structural or marked behavioral deficiencies indicating that Sap47 is dispensable for basic synaptic function, or that its function is compensated by other related proteins.
Syap1 - the mammalian homologue of Sap47 - was reported to play an essential role in Akt1 phosphorylation in various non-neuronal cells by promoting the association of mTORC2 with Akt1 which is critical for the downstream signaling cascade for adipogenesis. The function of Syap1 in the vertebrate nervous system, however, is unknown so far.
The present study provides a first description of the subcellular localization of mouse Syap1 in cultured motoneurons as well as in selected structures of the adult mouse nervous system and reports initial functional experiments. Preceding all descriptive experiments, commercially available Syap1 antibodies were tested for their specificity and suitability for this study. One antibody raised against the human protein was found to recognize specifically both the human and murine Syap1 protein, providing an indispensable tool for biochemical, immunocytochemical and immunohistochemical studies.
In the course of this work, a Syap1 knockout mouse was established and investigated. These mice are viable and fertile and do not show obvious changes in morphology or phenotype. As observed for Sap47 in flies, Syap1 is widely distributed in the synaptic neuropil, particularly in regions rich in glutamatergic synapses but it was also detected at perinuclear Golgi-associated sites in certain groups of neuronal somata. In motoneurons the protein is especially observed in similar perinuclear structures, partially overlapping with Golgi markers and in axons, dendrites and axonal growth cones. Biochemical and immunohistochemical analyses showed widespread Syap1 expression in the central nervous system with regionally distinct distribution patterns in cerebellum, hippocampus or olfactory bulb. Besides its expression in neurons, Syap1 is also detected in non-neuronal tissue e.g. liver, kidney and muscle tissue. In contrast, non-neuronal cells in the brain lack the typical perinuclear accumulation.
First functional studies with cultured primary motoneurons on developmental, structural and functional aspects reveal no influence of Syap1 depletion on survival and morphological features such as axon length or dendritic length. Contrary to expectations, in neuronal tissues or cultured motoneurons a reduction of Akt phosphorylation at Ser473 or Thr308 was not detected after Syap1 knockdown or knockout.
Synapse-associated protein 1 (Syap1/BSTA) is the mammalian homologue of Sap47 (synapse-associated protein of 47 kDa) in Drosophila. Sap47 null mutant larvae show reduced short-term synaptic plasticity and a defect in associative behavioral plasticity. In cultured adipocytes, Syap1 functions as part of a complex that phosphorylates protein kinase B alpha/Akt1 (Akt1) at Ser\(^{473}\) and promotes differentiation. The role of Syap1 in the vertebrate nervous system is unknown. Here, we generated a Syap1 knock-out mouse and show that lack of Syap1 is compatible with viability and fertility. Adult knock-out mice show no overt defects in brain morphology. In wild-type brain, Syap1 is found widely distributed in synaptic neuropil, notably in regions rich in glutamatergic synapses, but also in perinuclear structures associated with the Golgi apparatus of specific groups of neuronal cell bodies. In cultured motoneurons, Syap1 is located in axons and growth cones and is enriched in a perinuclear region partially overlapping with Golgi markers. We studied in detail the influence of Syap1 knockdown and knockout on structure and development of these cells. Importantly, Syap1 knockout does not affect motoneuron survival or axon growth. Unexpectedly, neither knockdown nor knockout of Syap1 in cultured motoneurons is associated with reduced Ser\(^{473}\) or Thr\(^{308}\) phosphorylation of Akt. Our findings demonstrate a widespread expression of Syap1 in the mouse central nervous system with regionally specific distribution patterns as illustrated in particular for olfactory bulb, hippocampus, and cerebellum.
Phospholipids occurring in cell membranes and lipoproteins are converted into oxidized phospholipids (OxPL) by oxidative stress promoting atherosclerotic plaque formation. Here, OxPL were characterized as novel targets in acute and chronic inflammatory pain. Oxidized 1-palmitoyl-2-arachidonoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (OxPAPC) and its derivatives were identified in inflamed tissue by mass spectrometry and binding assays. They elicited calcium influx, hyperalgesia and induced pro-nociceptive peptide release. Genetic, pharmacological and mass spectrometric evidence in vivo as well as in vitro confirmed the role of transient receptor potential channels (TRPA1 and TRPV1) as OxPAPC targets. Treatment with the monoclonal antibody E06 or with apolipoprotein A-I mimetic peptide D-4F, capturing OxPAPC in atherosclerosis, prevented inflammatory hyperalgesia, and in vitro TRPA1 activation. Administration of D-4F or E06 to rats profoundly ameliorated mechanical hyperalgesia and inflammation in collagen-induced arthritis. These data reveal a clinically relevant role for OxPAPC in inflammation offering therapy for acute and chronic inflammatory pain treatment by scavenging OxPAPC.
Der adoptive Transfer myelinspezifischer, enzephalithogener T-Lymphozyten führt bei Lewis-Ratten zu einer monophasisch verlaufenden Enzephalomyelitis (AT-EAE). Das Tiermodell AT-EAE ist gut geeignet, um die Transmigration von Lymphozyten über die Blut-Hirn-Schranke (BHS) ins Hirngewebe zu untersuchen. Der Einwanderung aktivierter Lymphozyten in das ZNS-Parenchym geht eine komplexe Kaskade von Zell-Zell-Interaktionen zwischen Lymphozyten und Endothel der BHS voraus. Die endothelialen Adhäsionsmoleküle Intercellular Adhesion Molecule 1 (ICAM-1) und Vascular Adhesion Molecule 1 (VCAM-1) sind entscheidend an diesem Prozess beteiligt. Mit einer kürzlich entwickelten, ultraschallbasierte molekularen Bildgebung und Quantifizierung ist die sequentielle Messung der Moleküle ICAM-1 und VCAM-1 im Verlauf der AT-EAE am lebenden Tier möglich. Schon vor dem Einsetzen der ersten klinischen Symptomatik zeigte sich bei den Versuchstieren ein Anstieg der Expression der Zelladhäsionsmoleküle ICAM-1- und VCAM-1.Diese Expression persistierte unerwartet über das Maximum der klinischen Symptomatik hinaus und bis in die Phasen der frühen Remission. Immunhistochemische Färbungen von Gehirn und Rückenmark bestätigten diese Expressionskinetik in situ. Darüber hinaus konnte histologisch und durchflusszytometrisch eine Persistenz CD4-positiver Lymphozyten in der frühen Remissionphase nachgewiesen werden. Hier war vor allem ein Anstieg der CD4- und FoxP3- positiven regulatorischen T-Zellen in der CD4 Subpopulation festzustellen. Diesen Zellen wird eine wichtige regulatorische Bedeutung für die Beendigung von Entzündungsreaktionen zugeschrieben. Ein experimentellen Beleg dafür, dass regulatorische Zellen in den Phasen der Remission die selben Migrationswege wie proinflammatorische Zellen nutzen, ergab sich durch die Blockade von ICAM-1 mit hohen Dosen eines monoklonalen Antikörpers. Wurde dieser AK in der Progressionsphase der Erkrankung gegeben, resultierte dies in einer signifikanten Reduktion der klinischen Symptomatik. Im Gegensatz dazu führte die spätere Gabe des Antikörpers in der frühen Remission zu einer signifikanten Verschlechterung des Krankheitverlaufes. In Zusammenschau legen diese Ergebnisse die Hypothese nahe, dass Adhäsionsmoleküle wie ICAM-1 nicht nur an der Einwanderung pathogener proinflammatorischer Zellen entscheidend beteiligt sind, sondern dass sie auch die Einwanderung antiinflammorischer und regulatorischer Zellen in das ZNS ermöglichen, die für eine Abschwächung der Gewebsentzündung und Zerstörung wichtig sind. Therapeutische Intervention an der BHS sind auf dem Boden dieser Erkenntnisse wahrscheinlich stadienabhängig wirksam und könnten bei falschem Einsatz mehr schaden als nutzen. Molekulare Bildgebungstechniken, wie hier paradigmatisch für die. ultraschallbasierten SPAQ-Technologie gezeigt, werden deshalb in Zukunft für die Bestimmung der geeigneten Phase einer entzündlichen ZNS Erkrankung und damit den geeigneten Zeitpunkt für eine therapeutische Intervention großes Potential erlangen.
Ionotropic glycine receptors (GlyRs) enable fast synaptic neurotransmission in the adult spinal cord and brainstem. The inhibitory GlyR is a transmembrane glycinegated chloride channel. The immature GlyR protein undergoes various processing steps, e.g., folding, assembly, and maturation while traveling from the endoplasmic reticulum to and through the Golgi apparatus, where post-translational modifications, e.g., glycosylation occur. The mature receptors are forward transported via microtubules to the cellular surface and inserted into neuronal membranes followed by synaptic clustering. The normal life cycle of a receptor protein includes further processes like internalization, recycling, and degradation. Defects in GlyR life cycle, e.g., impaired protein maturation and degradation have been demonstrated to underlie pathological mechanisms of various neurological diseases. The neurological disorder startle disease is caused by glycinergic dysfunction mainly due to missense mutations in genes encoding GlyR subunits (GLRA1 and GLRB). In vitro studies have shown that most recessive forms of startle disease are associated with impaired receptor biogenesis. Another neurological disease with a phenotype similar to startle disease is a special form of stiff-person syndrome (SPS), which is most probably due to the development of GlyR autoantibodies. Binding of GlyR autoantibodies leads to enhanced receptor internalization. Here we focus on the normal life cycle of GlyRs concentrating on assembly and maturation, receptor trafficking, post-synaptic integration and clustering, and GlyR internalization/recycling/degradation. Furthermore, this review highlights findings on impairment of these processes under disease conditions such as disturbed neuronal ER-Golgi trafficking as the major pathomechanism for recessive forms of human startle disease. In SPS, enhanced receptor internalization upon autoantibody binding to the GlyR has been shown to underlie the human pathology. In addition, we discuss how the existing mouse models of startle disease increased our current knowledge of GlyR trafficking routes and function. This review further illuminates receptor trafficking of GlyR variants originally identified in startle disease patients and explains changes in the life cycle of GlyRs in patients with SPS with respect to structural and functional consequences at the receptor level.
Background: Axonal degeneration and defects in neuromuscular neurotransmission represent a pathological hallmark
in spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) and other forms of motoneuron disease. These pathological changes do not
only base on altered axonal and presynaptic architecture, but also on alterations in dynamic movements of organelles
and subcellular structures that are not necessarily reflected by static histopathological changes. The dynamic interplay
between the axonal endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and ribosomes is essential for stimulus-induced local translation
in motor axons and presynaptic terminals. However, it remains enigmatic whether the ER and ribosome crosstalk is
impaired in the presynaptic compartment of motoneurons with Smn (survival of motor neuron) deficiency that could
contribute to axonopathy and presynaptic dysfunction in SMA.
Methods: Using super-resolution microscopy, proximity ligation assay (PLA) and live imaging of cultured motoneurons
from a mouse model of SMA, we investigated the dynamics of the axonal ER and ribosome distribution and
activation.
Results: We observed that the dynamic remodeling of ER was impaired in axon terminals of Smn-deficient motoneurons.
In addition, in axon terminals of Smn-deficient motoneurons, ribosomes failed to respond to the brain-derived
neurotrophic factor stimulation, and did not undergo rapid association with the axonal ER in response to extracellular
stimuli.
Conclusions: These findings implicate impaired dynamic interplay between the ribosomes and ER in axon terminals
of motoneurons as a contributor to the pathophysiology of SMA and possibly also other motoneuron diseases.
Background and purpose
The effects of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic on telemedical care have not been described on a national level. Thus, we investigated the medical stroke treatment situation before, during, and after the first lockdown in Germany.
Methods
In this nationwide, multicenter study, data from 14 telemedical networks including 31 network centers and 155 spoke hospitals covering large parts of Germany were analyzed regarding patients' characteristics, stroke type/severity, and acute stroke treatment. A survey focusing on potential shortcomings of in-hospital and (telemedical) stroke care during the pandemic was conducted.
Results
Between January 2018 and June 2020, 67,033 telemedical consultations and 38,895 telemedical stroke consultations were conducted. A significant decline of telemedical (p < 0.001) and telemedical stroke consultations (p < 0.001) during the lockdown in March/April 2020 and a reciprocal increase after relaxation of COVID-19 measures in May/June 2020 were observed. Compared to 2018–2019, neither stroke patients' age (p = 0.38), gender (p = 0.44), nor severity of ischemic stroke (p = 0.32) differed in March/April 2020. Whereas the proportion of ischemic stroke patients for whom endovascular treatment (14.3% vs. 14.6%; p = 0.85) was recommended remained stable, there was a nonsignificant trend toward a lower proportion of recommendation of intravenous thrombolysis during the lockdown (19.0% vs. 22.1%; p = 0.052). Despite the majority of participating network centers treating patients with COVID-19, there were no relevant shortcomings reported regarding in-hospital stroke treatment or telemedical stroke care.
Conclusions
Telemedical stroke care in Germany was able to provide full service despite the COVID-19 pandemic, but telemedical consultations declined abruptly during the lockdown period and normalized after relaxation of COVID-19 measures in Germany.
The Wuerzburg Hybridoma Library against the Drosophila brain represents a collection of around 200 monoclonal antibodies that bind to specific structures in the Drosophila brain. Here we describe the immunohistochemical staining patterns, the Western blot signals of one- and two-dimensional electrophoretic separation, and the mass spectrometric characterization of the target protein candidates recognized by the monoclonal antibodies aa2 and ab52 from the library. Analysis of a mutant of a candidate gene identified the Drosophila homolog of the Epidermal growth factor receptor Pathway Substrate clone 15 (Eps15) as the antigen for these two antibodies.
Several novel synaptic proteins have been identified by monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) of the Würzburg hybridoma library generated against homogenized Drosophila brains, e.g. cysteine string protein, synapse-associated protein of 47 kDa, and Bruchpilot. However, at present no routine technique exists to identify the antigens of mAbs of our library that label only a small number of cells in the brain. Yet these antibodies can be used to reproducibly label and thereby identify these cells by immunohistochemical staining. Here we describe the staining patterns in the Drosophila brain for ten mAbs of the Würzburg hybridoma library. Besides revealing the neuroanatomical structure and distribution of ten different sets of cells we compare the staining patterns with those of antibodies against known antigens and GFP expression patterns driven by selected Gal4 lines employing regulatory sequences of neuronal genes. We present examples where our antibodies apparently stain the same cells in different Gal4 lines suggesting that the corresponding regulatory sequences can be exploited by the split-Gal4 technique for transgene expression exclusively in these cells. The detection of Gal4 expression in cells labeled by mAbs may also help in the identification of the antigens recognized by the antibodies which then in addition to their value for neuroanatomy will represent important tools for the characterization of the antigens. Implications and future strategies for the identification of the antigens are discussed.
Motor neuron diseases (MNDs) encompass a variety of clinically and genetically heterogeneous disorders, which lead to the degeneration of motor neurons (MNs) and impaired motor functions. MNs coordinate and control movement by transmitting their signal to a target muscle cell. The synaptic endings of the MN axon and the contact site of the muscle cell thereby form the presynaptic and postsynaptic structures of the neuromuscular junction (NMJ). In MNDs, synaptic dysfunction and synapse elimination precede MN loss suggesting that the NMJ is an early target in the pathophysiological cascade leading to MN death. In this study, we established new experimental strategies to analyze human MNDs by patient derived induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) and investigated pathophysiological mechanisms in two different MNDs.
To study human MNDs, specialized cell culture systems that enable the connection of MNs to their target muscle cells are required to allow the formation of NMJs. In the first part of this study, we established and validated a human neuromuscular co-culture system consisting of iPSC derived MNs and 3D skeletal muscle tissue derived from myoblasts. We generated 3D muscle tissue by culturing primary myoblasts in a defined extracellular matrix in self-microfabricated silicone dishes that support the 3D tissue formation. Subsequently, iPSCs from healthy donors and iPSCs from patients with the progressive MND Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) were differentiated into MNs and used for 3D neuromuscular co-cultures. Using a combination of immunohistochemistry, calcium imaging, and pharmacological stimulations, we characterized and confirmed the functionality of the 3D muscle tissue and the 3D neuromuscular co-cultures. Finally, we applied this system as an in vitro model to study the pathophysiology of ALS and found a decrease in neuromuscular coupling, muscle contraction, and axonal outgrowth in co-cultures with MNs harboring ALS-linked superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1) mutation. In summary, this co-culture system presents a human model for MNDs that can recapitulate aspects of ALS pathophysiology.
In the second part of this study, we identified an impaired unconventional protein secretion (UPS) of Sod1 as pathological mechanisms in Pleckstrin homology domain-containing family G member 5 (Plekhg5)-associated MND. Sod1 is a leaderless cytosolic protein which is secreted in an autophagy-dependent manner. We found that Plekhg5 depletion in primary MNs and NSC34 cells leads to an impaired secretion of wildtype Sod1, indicating that Plekhg5 drives the UPS of Sod1 in vitro. By interfering with different steps during the biogenesis of autophagosomes, we could show that Plekhg5-regulated Sod1 secretion is determined by autophagy. To analyze our findings in a clinically more relevant model we utilized human iPSC MNs from healthy donors and ALS patients with SOD1 mutations. We observed reduced SOD1 secretion in ALS MNs which coincides with reduced protein expression of PLEKHG5 compared to healthy and isogenic control MNs. To confirm this correlation, we depleted PLEKHG5 in control MNs and found reduced extracellular SOD1 levels, implying that SOD1 secretion depends on PLEKHG5. In summary, we found that Plekh5 regulates the UPS of Sod1 in mouse and human MNs and that Sod1 secretion occurs in an autophagy dependent manner. Our data shows an unreported mechanistic link between two MND-associated proteins.
High-resolution ultrasonography (HRUS) is an emerging new tool in the investigation of peripheral nerves. We set out to assess the utility of HRUS performed at lower extremity nerves in peripheral neuropathies. Nerves of 26 patients with polyneuropathies of different etiologies and 26 controls were investigated using HRUS. Patients underwent clinical, laboratory, electrophysiological assessment, and a diagnostic sural nerve biopsy as part of the routine work-up. HRUS was performed at the sural, tibial, and the common, superficial, and deep peroneal nerves. The superficial peroneal nerve longitudinal diameter (LD) distinguished best between the groups: patients with immune-mediated neuropathies (n = 13, including six with histology-proven vasculitic neuropathy) had larger LD compared to patients with non-immune-mediated neuropathies (p < 0.05) and to controls (p < 0.001). Among all subgroups, patients with vasculitic neuropathy showed the largest superficial peroneal nerve LD (p < 0.001) and had a larger sural nerve cross-sectional area when compared with disease controls (p < 0.001). Enlargement of the superficial peroneal and sural nerves as detected by HRUS may be a useful additional finding in the differential diagnosis of vasculitic and other immune-mediated neuropathies.
In the mammalian brain, the neurotrophin brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) has emerged as a key factor for synaptic refinement, plasticity and learning. Although BDNF-induced signaling cascades are well known, the spatial aspects of the synaptic BDNF localization remained unclear. Recent data provide strong evidence for an exclusive presynaptic location and anterograde secretion of endogenous BDNF at synapses of the hippocampal circuit. In contrast, various studies using BDNF overexpression in cultured hippocampal neurons support the idea that postsynaptic elements and other dendritic structures are the preferential sites of BDNF localization and release. In this study we used rigorously tested anti-BDNF antibodies and achieved a dense labeling of endogenous BDNF close to synapses. Confocal microscopy showed natural BDNF close to many, but not all glutamatergic synapses, while neither GABAergic synapses nor postsynaptic structures carried a typical synaptic BDNF label. To visualize the BDNF distribution within the fine structure of synapses, we implemented super resolution fluorescence imaging by direct stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy (dSTORM). Two-color dSTORM images of neurites were acquired with a spatial resolution of ~20 nm. At this resolution, the synaptic scaffold proteins Bassoon and Homer exhibit hallmarks of mature synapses and form juxtaposed bars, separated by a synaptic cleft. BDNF imaging signals form granule-like clusters with a mean size of ~60 nm and are preferentially found within the fine structure of the glutamatergic presynapse. Individual glutamatergic presynapses carried up to 90% of the synaptic BDNF immunoreactivity, and only a minor fraction of BDNF molecules was found close to the postsynaptic bars. Our data proof that hippocampal neurons are able to enrich and store high amounts of BDNF in small granules within the mature glutamatergic presynapse, at a principle site of synaptic plasticity.
Mutationen im Glycintransporter 2 (GlyT2) stellen die präsynaptische Komponente der neurologischen Erkrankung Hyperekplexie oder Startle Disease dar. Der neuronale Na+/Cl- -abhängige GlyT2 ist für das Recycling von Glycin verantwortlich und bildet an inhibitorischen glycinergen Synapsen die Hauptquelle des freigesetzten Transmitters. Dominante, rezessive und zusammengesetzte heterozygote Mutationen wurden bereits identifiziert, von denen die meisten zu einer beeinträchtigten Glycinaufnahme führen. In dieser Arbeit konnten wir eine neue pathogene Mutation innerhalb des neuronalen Glycintransporter-2-Gens (SLC6A5, OMIM604159) in einer Familie identifizieren, in der beide Elternteile heterozygote Träger waren. Ein homozygotes Kind litt an schweren neuromotorischen Defiziten, wohingegen Heterozygote keine Symptome aufwiesen. Die neue rezessive Mutation c.1286C>T erzeugte einen missense Aminosäureaustausch von Prolin gegen Leucin an Position 429 (pP429L) in der Transmembrandomäne 5. Wir haben die GlyT2P429L-Variante mittels Homologiemodellierung, immuncytochemischer Färbungen, Western Blot Analysen, Biotinylierung und funktioneller Glycinaufnahmetests charakterisiert. Der mutierte GlyT2 zeigte beim Proteintransport durch verschiedene intrazelluläre Kompartimente zur Zelloberfläche keine Defizite. Die gesamte Proteinexpression war jedoch signifikant verringert. Obwohl GlyT2P429L an der Zelloberfläche vorhanden ist, zeigte er einen Verlust der Proteinfunktion. Die Co-Expression der Mutante mit dem Wildtyp-Protein, die die Situation der Eltern widerspiegelte, hatte keinen Einfluss auf die Transporterfunktion und erklärte somit ihren nicht symptomatischen Phänotyp. Wenn jedoch die Mutante im Vergleich zum Wildtyp-Protein im Überschuss exprimiert wurde, war die Glycinaufnahme signifikant verringert. Die Strukturanalyse ergab, dass der eingeführte Leucinrest an Position 429 zu Konformationsänderungen in der α-Helix 5 führt, die in unmittelbarer Nähe zur Natriumbindungsstelle des Transporters lokalisiert sind. Dies deutet darauf hin, dass die Zugangsmechanismen des GlyT2 gestört sein könnten und einen vollständigen Verlust der Transportaktivität verursachen. Unsere Ergebnisse belegen, dass P429 in GlyT2 ein strukturell wichtiger Aminosäurerest ist, der eine wichtige funktionelle Rolle beim Glycintransport spielt.
Glycine receptor β–targeting autoantibodies contribute to the pathology of autoimmune diseases
(2024)
Background and Objectives
Stiff-person syndrome (SPS) and progressive encephalomyelitis with rigidity and myoclonus (PERM) are rare neurologic disorders of the CNS. Until now, exclusive GlyRα subunit–binding autoantibodies with subsequent changes in function and surface numbers were reported. GlyR autoantibodies have also been described in patients with focal epilepsy. Autoimmune reactivity against the GlyRβ subunits has not yet been shown. Autoantibodies against GlyRα1 target the large extracellular N-terminal domain. This domain shares a high degree of sequence homology with GlyRβ making it not unlikely that GlyRβ-specific autoantibody (aAb) exist and contribute to the disease pathology.
Methods
In this study, we investigated serum samples from 58 patients for aAb specifically detecting GlyRβ. Studies in microarray format, cell-based assays, and primary spinal cord neurons and spinal cord tissue immunohistochemistry were performed to determine specific GlyRβ binding and define aAb binding to distinct protein regions. Preadsorption approaches of aAbs using living cells and the purified extracellular receptor domain were further used. Finally, functional consequences for inhibitory neurotransmission upon GlyRβ aAb binding were resolved by whole-cell patch-clamp recordings.
Results
Among 58 samples investigated, cell-based assays, tissue analysis, and preadsorption approaches revealed 2 patients with high specificity for GlyRβ aAb. Quantitative protein cluster analysis demonstrated aAb binding to synaptic GlyRβ colocalized with the scaffold protein gephyrin independent of the presence of GlyRα1. At the functional level, binding of GlyRβ aAb from both patients to its target impair glycine efficacy.
Discussion
Our study establishes GlyRβ as novel target of aAb in patients with SPS/PERM. In contrast to exclusively GlyRα1-positive sera, which alter glycine potency, aAbs against GlyRβ impair receptor efficacy for the neurotransmitter glycine. Imaging and functional analyses showed that GlyRβ aAbs antagonize inhibitory neurotransmission by affecting receptor function rather than localization.
Defects in glycinergic inhibition result in a complex neuromotor disorder in humans known as hyperekplexia (OMIM 149400) with similar phenotypes in rodents characterized by an exaggerated startle reflex and hypertonia. Analogous to genetic defects in humans single point mutations, microdeletions, or insertions in the Glra1 gene but also in the Glrb gene underlie the pathology in mice. The mutations either localized in the (spasmodic, oscillator, cincinnati, Nmf11) or the (spastic) subunit of the glycine receptor (GlyR) are much less tolerated in mice than in humans, leaving the question for the existence of different regulatory elements of the pathomechanisms in humans and rodents. In addition to the spontaneous mutations, new insights into understanding of the regulatory pathways in hyperekplexia or glycine encephalopathy arose from the constantly increasing number of knock-out as well as knock-in mutants of GlyRs. Over the last five years, various efforts using in vivo whole cell recordings provided a detailed analysis of the kinetic parameters underlying glycinergic dysfunction. Presynaptic compensation as well as postsynaptic compensatory mechanisms in these mice by other GlyR subunits or GABA(A) receptors, and the role of extra-synaptic GlyRs is still a matter of debate. A recent study on the mouse mutant oscillator displayed a novel aspect for compensation of functionality by complementation of receptor domains that fold independently. This review focuses on defects in glycinergic neurotransmission in mice discussed with the background of human hyperekplexia en route to strategies of compensation.
Glycine receptor (GlyR) autoantibodies are associated with stiff-person syndrome and the life-threatening progressive encephalomyelitis with rigidity and myoclonus in children and adults. Patient histories show variability in symptoms and responses to therapeutic treatments. A better understanding of the autoantibody pathology is required to develop improved therapeutic strategies. So far, the underlying molecular pathomechanisms include enhanced receptor internalization and direct receptor blocking altering GlyR function. A common epitope of autoantibodies against the GlyRα1 has been previously defined to residues 1A-33G at the N-terminus of the mature GlyR extracellular domain. However, if other autoantibody binding sites exist or additional GlyR residues are involved in autoantibody binding is yet unknown. The present study investigates the importance of receptor glycosylation for binding of anti-GlyR autoantibodies. The glycine receptor α1 harbors only one glycosylation site at the amino acid residue asparagine 38 localized in close vicinity to the identified common autoantibody epitope. First, non-glycosylated GlyRs were characterized using protein biochemical approaches as well as electrophysiological recordings and molecular modeling. Molecular modeling of non-glycosylated GlyRα1 did not show major structural alterations. Moreover, non-glycosylation of the GlyRα1N38Q did not prevent the receptor from surface expression. At the functional level, the non-glycosylated GlyR demonstrated reduced glycine potency, but patient GlyR autoantibodies still bound to the surface-expressed non-glycosylated receptor protein in living cells. Efficient adsorption of GlyR autoantibodies from patient samples was possible by binding to native glycosylated and non-glycosylated GlyRα1 expressed in living not fixed transfected HEK293 cells. Binding of patient-derived GlyR autoantibodies to the non-glycosylated GlyRα1 offered the possibility to use purified non-glycosylated GlyR extracellular domain constructs coated on ELISA plates and use them as a fast screening readout for the presence of GlyR autoantibodies in patient serum samples. Following successful adsorption of patient autoantibodies by GlyR ECDs, binding to primary motoneurons and transfected cells was absent. Our results indicate that the glycine receptor autoantibody binding is independent of the receptor’s glycosylation state. Purified non-glycosylated receptor domains harbouring the autoantibody epitope thus provide, an additional reliable experimental tool besides binding to native receptors in cell-based assays for detection of autoantibody presence in patient sera.
Objective
Impairment of glycinergic neurotransmission leads to complex movement and behavioral disorders. Patients harboring glycine receptor autoantibodies suffer from stiff‐person syndrome or its severe variant progressive encephalomyelitis with rigidity and myoclonus. Enhanced receptor internalization was proposed as the common molecular mechanism upon autoantibody binding. Although functional impairment of glycine receptors following autoantibody binding has recently been investigated, it is still incompletely understood.
Methods
A cell‐based assay was used for positive sample evaluation. Glycine receptor function was assessed by electrophysiological recordings and radioligand binding assays. The in vivo passive transfer of patient autoantibodies was done using the zebrafish animal model.
Results
Glycine receptor function as assessed by glycine dose–response curves showed significantly decreased glycine potency in the presence of patient sera. Upon binding of autoantibodies from 2 patients, a decreased fraction of desensitized receptors was observed, whereas closing of the ion channel remained fast. The glycine receptor N‐terminal residues \(^{29}\)A to \(^{62}\)G were mapped as a common epitope of glycine receptor autoantibodies. An in vivo transfer into the zebrafish animal model generated a phenotype with disturbed escape behavior accompanied by a reduced number of glycine receptor clusters in the spinal cord of affected animals.
Interpretation
Autoantibodies against the extracellular domain mediate alterations of glycine receptor physiology. Moreover, our in vivo data demonstrate that the autoantibodies are a direct cause of the disease, because the transfer of human glycine receptor autoantibodies to zebrafish larvae generated impaired escape behavior in the animal model compatible with abnormal startle response in stiff‐person syndrome or progressive encephalitis with rigidity and myoclonus patients.
Genetische Inaktivierung des somatischen Cytochrom C Gens der Maus Cytochrom C wurde als ein Interaktionspartner im Apoptosom beschrieben. Ziel dieses Projektes war es, die Rolle von Cytochrom C bei der Apoptose von Nervenzellen in vivo durch genetische Inaktivierung in der Maus zu untersuchen. Die homozygote Deletion des Cytochrom C Gens führt jedoch zu einem sehr frühen Entwicklungsdefekt: Schon am 8. Embryonaltag findet man nur noch Embryonen ohne erkennbare Körperachse. Im weiteren wurden daher heterozygote Tiere untersucht, die in bestimmten Geweben, wie Gehirn und Rückenmark, eine Reduktion der Menge von Cytochrom C aufweisen. Am ersten Tag nach der Geburt konnten keine Unterschiede zwischen Tieren mit einem oder zwei Cytochrom C Genen in Bezug die Anzahl von Motoneuronen gefunden werden. Auch nach perinataler Fazialisläsion war die Rate des Zelltods bei Tieren mit heterozygoter Deletion des Cytochrom C Gens unverändert. In vitro zeigte sich jedoch eine erhöhte Resitenz von Motoneuronen gegenüber Fas-induzierter Apoptose. Bei der Analyse der Apoptose von Thymozyten zeigte sich ein Trend, der eine kleine, aber reproduzierbare Verzögerung einer späten Zelltodphase nach UV-induzierter Apoptose nahelegt. Erste Experimente deuten außerdem auf einen Effekt der Cytochrom C Gendosis auf den Verlauf einer Experimentellen Autoimmunencephalitis (EAE) hin. Charakterisierung der NFL-Cre Maus Die zelltypspezifische Genablation mit dem Cre/loxP System umgeht einige der größten Probleme der klassischen Methode der Geninaktivierung in Mäusen, indem nur in bestimmten Geweben oder Zelltypen, eventuell sogar nur ab einem bestimmten Zeitpunkt, ein Gen gezielt ausgeschaltet werden kann. Allerdings hängt das Cre/loxP System von der Verfügbarkeit von brauchbaren Cre-transgenen Mauslinien mit entsprechenden Expressionsmustern und –kinetiken ab. Wir haben eine transgene Mauslinie etabliert und analysiert, die die Cre Rekombinase unter der Kontrolle des humanen Neurofilament-L Promotors exprimiert. Das Expressionsmuster von Cre wurde in mehreren Geweben mit RT-PCR und durch Verkreuzung mit einer Reportergenmaus untersucht. Im Gehirn wurden Cre exprimierende Zelltypen mit in-situ Hybridisierung, Immunhistochemie und wiederum mit Hilfe der Reportermaus identifiziert. Dabei zeigte sich eine spezifische Cre Expression in bestimmten Neuronpopulationen wie hippocampalen Pyramidenzellen und spinalen und cranialen Motoneuronen. Unsere NFL-Cre Maus besitzt einige Eigenschaften, die bisher publizierte Cre-Linien nicht aufweisen, so z.B.eine starke Cre Expression in hippocampalen Pyramidenzellen, aber nicht in Körnerzellen des Gyrus dentatus; Expression in cortikalen Pyramidenzellen, aber keine Expression im Striatum; Expression in zerebellären Purkinje-, aber nicht Körnerzellen; sowie die Expression in spinalen und cranialen Motoneuronen, aber nicht in angrenzenden Interneuronen. Die Rolle von Stat3 für das Überleben von Motoneuronen Die Mitglieder der CNTF/LIF/Cardiotrophin Genfamilie sind potente Überlebensfaktoren für embryonale und lädierte Motoneurone sowohl in vitro als auch in vivo. Diese Faktoren binden an Rezeptorkomplexe, die gp130 und LIFR als signaltransduzierende Komponenten enthalten. Im Gegensatz zu den Rezeptoren für andere neurotrophe Faktoren, führt die Aktivierung von gp130 und LIFR zur Phosphorylierung und Aktivierung des Transkriptionsfaktors Stat3. Es war aber zu Beginn dieser Arbeiten unklar, ob die Aktivierung von Stat3 für den Überlebenseffekt der neuropoietischen Zytokine notwendig ist. Um diese Frage zu beantworten, wurde Stat3 in Motoneuronen mit Hilfe des Cre/loxP Systems konditional inaktiviert. Stat3 ist nicht für das Überleben embryonaler Motoneurone essentiell, obwohl man in vitro eine Verschiebung der Dosis-Wirkungskurve für CNTF findet. In vivo hingegen kann kein erhöhter Zelltod von Motoneuronen nachgewiesen werden. Im Gegensatz dazu, kommt es bei adulten Tieren mit Inaktivierung von Stat3 in Motoneuronen zu einem erhöhten Zelltod nach Fazialisläsion. Diese Neurone können wiederum durch die Applikation neurotropher Faktoren, einschließlich CNTF, gerettet werden. Durch semiquantitative RT-PCR kann man zeigen, daß Stat3-regulierte Gene, deren Expression nach Nervenläsion induziert wird, in Neuronen mit Inaktivierung von Stat3 weniger stark exprimiert werden. Zu diesen Genen gehören Reg-2, ein Mitogen für Schwannzellen, das von regenerierenden Neuronen exprimiert wird, und Bcl-xL, ein Gen, welches direkt in die Apoptoseregulation eingreift. Diese Daten zeigen, daß Stat3 Aktivierung eine essentielle Rolle für das Überleben nach Läsion von postnatalen Motoneuronen spielt, aber nicht während der Embryonalentwicklung. Das bedeutet, daß die Signalwege ein und desselben neurotrophen Faktors sich während der Entwicklung und reifung des Organismus verändern können.
Fluorescence labeling of difficult to access protein sites, e.g., in confined compartments, requires small fluorescent labels that can be covalently tethered at well-defined positions with high efficiency. Here, we report site-specific labeling of the extracellular domain of γ-aminobutyric acid type A (GABA-A) receptor subunits by genetic code expansion (GCE) with unnatural amino acids (ncAA) combined with bioorthogonal click-chemistry labeling with tetrazine dyes in HEK-293-T cells and primary cultured neurons. After optimization of GABA-A receptor expression and labeling efficiency, most effective variants were selected for super-resolution microscopy and functionality testing by whole-cell patch clamp. Our results show that GCE with ncAA and bioorthogonal click labeling with small tetrazine dyes represents a versatile method for highly efficient site-specific fluorescence labeling of proteins in a crowded environment, e.g., extracellular protein domains in confined compartments such as the synaptic cleft.
Bag-1 Defizienz in Mäusen führt in der embryonalen Entwicklung zu einem lethalen Phänotyp mit schweren Defekten in Nervensystem und Leber. Neben der Expression der Inhibitor of Apoptosis Proteinen (IAP), ist ein Komplex aus Akt, Hsp70, Bag-1 und B-Raf für die Phosphorylierung eines spezifischen AS-Restes des pro-apoptotischen Proteins Bad für das Überleben wichtig (Gotz und Wiese et al., 2005). Das Ziel dieser Arbeit bestand darin, die Funktionen der Maus Bag-1 Isoformen in der neuronalen Entwicklung anhand von in vitro Modellen näher zu charakterisieren. Überexpression von Bag-1S und Bag-1L in PC12 Zellen zeigte, dass Bag-1S im Zytoplasma und im Zellkern exprimiert wird, Bag-1L nur im Zellkern. Eine eingeführte Punktmutation, die die Interaktion mit Hsp70 verhindert, führte zu einer zytoplasmatischen Expression von Bag-1Sm. Die Mutante Bag-1Lm blieb nukleär lokalisiert. Überexpression von Bag-1S führte zu einer Reduktion der Neuritenlänge. Bag-1L und die mutanten Isoformen zeigten diesen Effekt nicht. Der inhibierende Einfluss von Bag-1S auf das Neuritenwachstum ist bislang spekulativ. Die Regulation erfolgt vermutlich über den Komplex Bag-1, Hsp70, Akt und B-Raf. Die Analyse von Bag-1 - /- Neuralen Stammzellen zeigte im Vergleich zu Bag-1 +/+ Neuralen Stammzellen eine erhöhte Apoptose. Wurde durch Vireninfektion Bag-1S oder Bag-1L zurück in die Zellen gebracht, waren diese wieder in der Lage zu überleben. Die Mutanten zeigten diese Effekte nicht, so dass Hsp70 ein notwendiger Interaktionspartner für die überlebensfördernde Wirkung von Bag-1 ist. Bag-1 -/- Neurale Stammzellen zeigten außerdem gliale Differenzierungsdefekte, die nicht durch eine Rückführung der Isoformen gerettet werden konnten. Zusätzliche Experimente, die Neurale Stammzellen gezielt in die gliale Differenzierung durch Gabe von CNTF oder LIF leiten, zeigten, dass Bag-1 -/- Neurale Stammzellen durchaus in der Lage sind, gliale Zellen zu bilden. Bag-1 gilt auch als Modulator nukleärer Rezeptoren, wie dem Glucocorticoid-Rezeptor (GR). Die Kotransfektion der Bag-1 Isoformen mit GR-GFP, zeigte Änderungen des Expressionsmusters bei Bag-1L und Bag-1Lm, jedoch nicht bei Bag-1S und Bag-1Sm. Die Etablierung einer Methode zur in vivo Analyse von Glucocorticoid-Signalwegen in der Neuroneogenese von adulten Mäusen, war in ihren ersten Ansätzen erfolgreich, so dass diese nach einigen Optimierungen für weitere Analysen genutzt werden kann.
Mutations in GlyR α1 or β subunit genes in humans and rodents lead to severe startle disease characterized by rigidity, massive stiffness and excessive startle responses upon unexpected tactile or acoustic stimuli. The recently characterized startle disease mouse mutant shaky carries a missense mutation (Q177K) in the β8-β9 loop within the large extracellular N-terminal domain of the GlyR α1 subunit. This results in a disrupted hydrogen bond network around K177 and faster GlyR decay times. Symptoms in mice start at postnatal day 14 and increase until premature death of homozygous shaky mice around 4–6 weeks after birth. Here we investigate the in vivo functional effects of the Q177K mutation using behavioral analysis coupled to protein biochemistry and functional assays. Western blot analysis revealed GlyR α1 subunit expression in wild-type and shaky animals around postnatal day 7, a week before symptoms in mutant mice become obvious. Before 2 weeks of age, homozygous shaky mice appeared healthy and showed no changes in body weight. However, analysis of gait and hind-limb clasping revealed that motor coordination was already impaired. Motor coordination and the activity pattern at P28 improved significantly upon diazepam treatment, a pharmacotherapy used in human startle disease. To investigate whether functional deficits in glycinergic neurotransmission are present prior to phenotypic onset, we performed whole-cell recordings from hypoglossal motoneurons (HMs) in brain stem slices from wild-type and shaky mice at different postnatal stages. Shaky homozygotes showed a decline in mIPSC amplitude and frequency at P9-P13, progressing to significant reductions in mIPSC amplitude and decay time at P18-24 compared to wild-type littermates. Extrasynaptic GlyRs recorded by bath-application of glycine also revealed reduced current amplitudes in shaky mice compared to wild-type neurons, suggesting that presynaptic GlyR function is also impaired. Thus, a distinct, but behaviorally ineffective impairment of glycinergic synapses precedes the symptoms onset in shaky mice. These findings extend our current knowledge on startle disease in the shaky mouse model in that they demonstrate how the progression of GlyR dysfunction causes, with a delay of about 1 week, the appearance of disease symptoms.
In the central nervous system, excitatory and inhibitory signal transduction processes are mediated by presynaptic release of neurotransmitters, which bind to postsynaptic receptors. Glycine receptors (GlyRs) and GABAA receptors (GABAARs) are ligand-gated ion channels that enable synaptic inhibition. One part of the present thesis elucidated the role of the GlyRα1 β8 β9 loop in receptor expression, localization, and function by means of amino acid substitutions at residue Q177. This residue is underlying a startle disease phenotype in the spontaneous mouse model shaky and affected homozygous animals are dying 4-6 weeks after birth. The residue is located in the β8 β9 loop and thus part of the signal transduction unit essential for proper ion channel function. Moreover, residue Q177 is involved in a hydrogen network important for ligand binding. We observed no difference in ion channel trafficking to the cellular membrane for GlyRα1Q177 variants. However, electrophysiological measurements demonstrated reduced glycine, taurine, and β alanine potency in comparison to the wildtype protein. Modeling revealed that some GlyRα1Q177 variants disrupt the hydrogen network around residue Q177. The largest alterations were observed for the Q177R variant, which displayed similar effects as the Q177K mutation present in shaky mice. Exchange with structurally related amino acids to the original glutamine preserved the hydrogen bond network. Our results underlined the importance of the GlyR β8 β9 loop for proper ion channel gating.
GlyRs as well as GABAARs can be modulated by numerous allosteric substances. Recently, we focused on monoterpenes from plant extracts and showed positive allosteric modulation of GABAARs. Here, we focused on the effect of 11 sesquiterpenes and sesquiterpenoids (SQTs) on GABAARs. SQTs are compounds naturally occurring in plants. We tested SQTs of the volatile fractions of hop and chamomile, including their secondary metabolites generated during digestion. Using the patch-clamp technique on transfected cells and neurons, we were able to observe significant GABAAR modulation by some of the compounds analyzed. Furthermore, a possible binding mechanism of SQTs to the neurosteroid binding site of the GABAAR was revealed by modeling and docking studies. We successfully demonstrated GABAAR modulation by SQTs and their secondary metabolites.
The second part of the thesis investigated three-dimensional (3D) in vitro cell culture models which are becoming more and more important in different part of natural sciences. The third dimension allows developing of complex models closer to the natural environment of cells, but also requires materials with mechanical and biological properties comparable to the native tissue of the encapsulated cells. This is especially challenging for 3D in vitro cultures of primary neurons and astrocytes as the brain is one of the softest tissues found in the body. Ultra-soft matrices that mimic the neuronal in vivo environment are difficult to handle. We have overcome these challenges using fiber scaffolds created by melt electrowriting to reinforce ultra-soft matrigel. Hence, the scaffolds enabled proper handling of the whole composites and thus structural and functional characterizations requiring movement of the composites to different experimental setups. Using these scaffold-matrigel composites, we successfully established methods necessary for the characterization of neuronal network formation. Before starting with neurons, a mouse fibroblast cell line was seeded in scaffold-matrigel composites and transfected with the GlyR. 3D cultured cells displayed high viability, could be immunocytochemically stained, and electrophysiologically analyzed.
In a follow-up study, primary mouse cortical neurons in fiber-reinforced matrigel were grown for up to 21 days in vitro. Neurons displayed high viability, and quantification of neurite lengths and synapse density revealed a fully formed neuronal network already after 7 days in 3D culture. Calcium imaging and patch clamp experiments demonstrated spontaneous network activity, functional voltage-gated sodium channels as well as action potential firing. By combining ultra-soft hydrogels with fiber scaffolds, we successfully created a cell culture model suitable for future work in the context of cell-cell interactions between primary cells of the brain and tumor cells, which will help to elucidate the molecular pathology of aggressive brain tumors and possibly other disease mechanisms.
Background
We aimed to accurately estimate the frequency of a hexanucleotide repeat expansion in C9orf72 that has been associated with a large proportion of cases of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and frontotemporal dementia (FTD).
Methods
We screened 4448 patients diagnosed with ALS (El Escorial criteria) and 1425 patients with FTD (Lund-Manchester criteria) from 17 regions worldwide for the GGGGCC hexanucleotide expansion using a repeat-primed PCR assay. We assessed familial disease status on the basis of self-reported family history of similar neurodegenerative diseases at the time of sample collection. We compared haplotype data for 262 patients carrying the expansion with the known Finnish founder risk haplotype across the chromosomal locus. We calculated age-related penetrance using the Kaplan-Meier method with data for 603 individuals with the expansion.
Findings
In patients with sporadic ALS, we identified the repeat expansion in 236 (7·0%) of 3377 white individuals from the USA, Europe, and Australia, two (4·1%) of 49 black individuals from the USA, and six (8·3%) of 72 Hispanic individuals from the USA. The mutation was present in 217 (39·3%) of 552 white individuals with familial ALS from Europe and the USA. 59 (6·0%) of 981 white Europeans with sporadic FTD had the mutation, as did 99 (24·8%) of 400 white Europeans with familial FTD. Data for other ethnic groups were sparse, but we identified one Asian patient with familial ALS (from 20 assessed) and two with familial FTD (from three assessed) who carried the mutation. The mutation was not carried by the three Native Americans or 360 patients from Asia or the Pacific Islands with sporadic ALS who were tested, or by 41 Asian patients with sporadic FTD. All patients with the repeat expansion had (partly or fully) the founder haplotype, suggesting a one-off expansion occurring about 1500 years ago. The pathogenic expansion was non-penetrant in individuals younger than 35 years, 50% penetrant by 58 years, and almost fully penetrant by 80 years.
Interpretation
A common Mendelian genetic lesion in C9orf72 is implicated in many cases of sporadic and familial ALS and FTD. Testing for this pathogenic expansion should be considered in the management and genetic counselling of patients with these fatal neurodegenerative diseases.
0-2A progenitor cells give rise to both oligodendrocytes and type-2 astrocytes in vitro. Whereas oligodendrocyte differentiation occurs constitutively, type-2 astrocyte differentiation requires extracellular signals, one of which is thought to be ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF). CNTF, however, is insufficient by itself to induce the development of stable type-2 astrocytes. In this report we show the following: (a) that molecules associated with the extracellular matrix (ECM) cooperate with CNTF to induce stable type-2 astrocyte differentiation in serumfree cultures. The combination of CNTF and the ECM-associated molecules thus mimics the effect of FCS, which has been shown previously to induce stable type-2 astrocyte differentiation in vitro. (b) Both the ECM-associated molecules and CNTF act directly on 0-2A progenitor cells and can induce them to differentiate prematurely into type-2 astrocytes. (c) ECM-associated molecules also inhibit oligodendrocyte differentiation, even in the absence of CNTF, but this inhibition is not sufficient on its own to induce type-2 astrocyte differentiation. (d) Whereas the effect of ECM on oligodendrocyte differentiation is mimicked by basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF), the effect of ECM on type-2 astrocyte differentiation is not. (e) The ECM-associated molecules that are responsible for inhibitin~ oligodendrocyte differentiation and for cooperating with CNTF to induce type-2 astrocyte differentiation are made by non-glial cells in vitro. (f) Molecules that have these activities and bind to ECM are present in the optic nerve at the time type-2 astrocytes are thought to be developing.
We examined the potential role of fibroblast growth factor 5 (FGF-5) as a target-derived trophic factor for spinal motoneurons. Northern analysis of total RNA from rat skeletal muscle revealed an FGF-5 mRNA transcript both during the period of embryonic motoneuron death and in the adult. Recombinant human FGF-5 supported the survival of highly enriched cultures of embryonic chick motoneurons. Significant proportions of the motoneuron survival activity of rat skeletal muscle extracts could be immunoprecipitated using an antiserum to FGF-5. The immunoprecipitable activity was present in soluble and matrix-bound forms in embryonic muscle, but bound exclusively to the extracellular matrix in adult muscle. These results, along with the secretory nature of FGF-5, suggest that FGF-5 may act as a target-derived trophic factor for motoneurons.
Significant advances in fluorescence imaging techniques enable life scientists today to gain insights into biological systems at an unprecedented scale. The interpretation of image features in such bioimage datasets and their subsequent quantitative analysis is referred to as bioimage analysis. A substantial proportion of bioimage analyses is still performed manually by a human expert - a tedious process that is long known to be subjective. Particularly in tasks that require the annotation of image features with a low signal-to-noise ratio, like in fluorescence images of tissue samples, the inter-rater agreement drops. However, like any other scientific analysis, also bioimage analysis has to meet the general quality criteria of quantitative research, which are objectivity, reliability, and validity. Thus, the automation of bioimage analysis with computer-aided approaches is highly desirable. Albeit conventional hard-coded algorithms are fully unbiased, a human user has to set its respective feature extraction parameters. Thus, also these approaches can be considered subjective.
Recently, deep learning (DL) has enabled impressive advances in computer vision research. The predominant difference between DL and conventional algorithms is the capability of DL models to learn the respective task on base of an annotated training dataset, instead of following user-defined rules for feature extraction. This thesis hypothesized that DL can be used to increase the objectivity, reliability, and validity of bioimage analyses, thus going beyond mere automation. However, in absence of ground truth annotations, DL models have to be trained on manual and thus subjective annotations, which could cause the model to incorporate such a bias. Moreover, model training is stochastic and even training on the same data could result in models with divergent outputs. Consequently, both the training on subjective annotations and the model-to-model variability could impair the quality of DL-based bioimage analyses. This thesis systematically assessed the impacts of these two limitations experimentally by analyzing fluorescence signals of a protein called cFOS in mouse brain sections. Since the abundance of cFOS correlates with mouse behavior, behavioral analyses could be used for cross-validation of the bioimage analysis results. Furthermore, this thesis showed that pooling the input of multiple human experts during model training and integration of multiple trained models in a model ensemble can mitigate the impact of these limitations. In summary, the present study establishes guidelines for how DL can be used to increase the general quality of bioimage analyses.
D EVELOPME'iT and maintenance of the mammalian nervous system is dependent upon neurotrophic cytokines. One class of neurotrophic factor acts through rcccptor complexes involving the lowaffinity leukaemia inhibitor y faclor receptor subunit (LlF-R). Members of this fa mily of cytokines, such as ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF) and leukaemia inhibitory factor (LIF), have profound effects on the survival and maintenance of motor neurons, Recently it was reported that mice lacking LlF-R die shortly after birth unlike mice lacking CNTF or LIF which are viable. Here we describe histopathological analyses of lifr mutants tha t reveal a loss > 35% of facia l motor neurons, 40% of spinal motor neurons and 50% of neurons in the nucleus ambiguus. These findings point to the existence of a ligand for LIF-R tha t is required for the normal development of motor neurons in both brainstem nuclei and spinal cord.