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The voltage –gated calcium channel, Cav1.2, and the plasma membrane calcium ATPase, PMCA4b, play important roles in excitable and non-excitable cells. The central function of Cav1.2 is to regulate the calcium entry into cells upon depolarization, while PMCA4b is responsible for calcium extrusion and has an influence on cellular calcium homeostasis. Both proteins control fundamental functions in the heart and brain, but the specific functions and the precise mechanisms are still investigated. In order to identify new interaction partners that may regulate the activities of the Cav1.2 and the PMCA4b, we used three independent assays and co-localization studies. The assays, which were used are PDZ domain arrays (testing 124 different PDZ domains), GST pull-downs, and conventional immunoprecipitation assays. In the PDZ arrays, strongest interactions with Cav1.2 and PMCA4b were found for the PDZ domains of MAST-205, MAGI-1, MAGI-2, MAGI-3, and ZO-1. Additionally, we established interactions between Cav1.2 and the PDZ domains of NHERF1/2, Mint-2, and CASK. PMCA4b was observed to interact with Mint-2, and its interactions with Chapsyn-110 and CASK were confirmed. Furthermore, we validated interaction of Cav1.2 and PMCA4b with NHERF1, CASK, MAST-205 and MAGI-3 via immunoprecipitation. We also demonstrated direct interaction of the C-terminus of Cav1.2 and the PDZ domain of nNOS. We assumed that nNOS overexpression would reduce Ca2+ influx through Cav1.2. To address this question, we measured Ca2+ currents in stably transfected HEK 293 cells expressing the Cav1.2 (α1b and β2a subunit of the smooth muscle L-type calcium channel) and nNOS. It has been shown that NO modulates ion channel activity by nitrosylation of sulfhydryl groups on the channel protein. So we propose that the interaction between the C-terminus of Cav1.2 and the PDZ domain of nNOS inhibits the currents by an S-nitrosylation of the channel protein. All these interactions connect both proteins to signaling networks involved in signal transmission, cell adhesion, and apoptosis, which may help provide new hints about the physiological functions of Cav1.2 and PMCA4b in intra- and intercellular signaling.
Molecular modelling and simulation are powerful methods in providing important in-formation on different biological systems to elucidate their structural and functional proper-ties, which cannot be determined in experiment. These methods are applied to analyse versa-tile biological systems: lipid membrane bilayers stabilized by an intercalated single wall carbon nanotube and retroviral proteins such as HIV protease and integrase. HIV-1 integrase has nuclear localization signals (NLS) which play a crucial role in nuclear import of viral preintegration complex (PIC). However, the detailed mechanisms of PIC formation and its nuclear transport are not known. Previously it was shown that NLSs bind to the cell transport machinery e.g. proteins of nuclear pore complex such as transportins. I investigated the interaction of this viral protein HIV-1 integrase with proteins of the nuclear pore complex such as transportin-SR2 (Shityakov et al., 2010). I showed that the transportin-SR2 in nuclear import is required due to its interaction with the HIV-1 integrase. I analyzed key domain interaction, and hydrogen bond formation in transportin-SR2. These results were discussed in comparison to other retroviral species such as foamy viruses to better understand this specific and efficient retroviral trafficking route. The retroviral nuclear import was next analyzed in experiments regarding the retroviral ability to infect nondividing cells. To accomplish the gene transfer task successfully, ret-roviruses must efficiently transduce different cell cultures at different phases of cell cycle. However, promising and safe foamy viral vectors used for gene transfer are unable to effi-ciently infect quiescent cells. This drawback was due to their inability to create a preintegra-tion complex (PIC) for nuclear import of retroviral DNA. On the contrary, the lentiviral vec-tors are not dependant on cell cycle. In the course of reverse transcription the polypurine tract (PPT) is believed to be crucial for PIC formation. In this thesis, I compared the transduction frequencies of PPT modified FV vectors with lentiviral vectors in nondividing and dividing alveolar basal epithelial cells from human adenocarcinoma (A549) by using molecular cloning, transfection and transduction techniques and several other methods. In contrast to lentiviral vectors, FV vectors were not able to effi-ciently transduce nondividing cell (Shityakov and Rethwilm, unpublished data). Despite the findings, which support the use of FV vectors as a safe and efficient alternative to lentiviral vectors, major limitation in terms of foamy-based retroviral vector gene transfer in quiescent cells still remains. Many attempts have been made recently to search for the potential molecules as pos-sible drug candidates to treat HIV infection for over decades now. These molecules can be retrieved from chemical libraries or can be designed on a computer screen and then synthe-sized in a laboratory. Most notably, one could use the computerized structure as a reference to determine the types of molecules that might block the enzyme. Such structure-based drug design strategies have the potential to save off years and millions of dollars compared to a more traditional trial-and-error drug development process. After the crystal structure of the HIV-encoded protease enzyme had been elucidated, computer-aided drug design played a pivotal role in the development of new compounds that inhibit this enzyme which is responsible for HIV maturation and infectivity. Promising repre-sentatives of these compounds have recently found their way to patients. Protease inhibitors show a powerful sustained suppression of HIV-1 replication, especially when used in combi-nation therapy regimens. However, these drugs are becoming less effective to more resistant HIV strains due to multiple mutations in the retroviral proteases. In computational drug design I used molecular modelling methods such as lead ex-pansion algorithm (Tripos®) to create a virtual library of compounds with different binding affinities to protease binding site. In addition, I heavily applied computer assisted combinato-rial chemistry approaches to design and optimize virtual libraries of protease inhibitors and performed in silico screening and pharmacophore-similarity scoring of these drug candidates. Further computational analyses revealed one unique compound with different protease bind-ing ability from the initial hit and its role for possible new class of protease inhibitors is dis-cussed (Shityakov and Dandekar, 2009). A number of atomistic models were developed to elucidate the nanotube behaviour in lipid bilayers. However, none of them provided useful information for CNT effect upon the lipid membrane bilayer for implementing all-atom models that will allow us to calculate the deviations of lipid molecules from CNT with atomistic precision. Unfortunately, the direct experimental investigation of nanotube behaviour in lipid bilayer remains quite a tricky prob-lem opening the door before the molecular simulation techniques. In this regard, more de-tailed multi-scale simulations are needed to clearly understand the stabilization characteristics of CNTs in hydrophobic environment. The phenomenon of an intercalated single-wall carbon nanotube in the center of lipid membrane was extensively studied and analyzed. The root mean square deviation and root mean square fluctuation functions were calculated in order to measure stability of lipid mem-branes. The results indicated that an intercalated carbon nanotube restrains the conformational freedom of adjacent lipids and hence has an impact on the membrane stabilization dynamics (Shityakov and Dandekar, 2011). On the other hand, different lipid membranes may have dissimilarities due to the differing abilities to create a bridge formation between the adherent lipid molecules. The results derived from this thesis will help to develop stable nanobiocom-posites for construction of novel biomaterials and delivery of various biomolecules for medi-cine and biology.
Structural and functional modifications of synaptic connections (“synaptic plasticity”) are believed to mediate learning and memory processes. Thus, molecular mechanisms of how synapses assemble in both structural and functional terms are relevant for our understanding of neuronal development as well as the processes of learning and memory. Synapses form by an asymmetric association of highly specialized membrane domains: at the presynaptic active zone transmitter filled vesicles fuse, while transmitter receptors at the opposite postsynaptic density sense this signal. By genetic analysis, matrix proteins of active zones from various families have been shown to be important for fast vesicle fusion, and were suggested to contribute to synapse stability and assembly. The Sigrist lab in collaboration with the Buchner lab previously had shown that the large scaffold protein Bruchpilot (Brp) is essential for both the structural and functional integrity of active zones and for synaptic plasticity in Drosophila melanogaster. The work described in this thesis investigated several candidate proteins which appear to be involved in preand postsynaptic function, as summarized in the following: (1) DREP-2 (DEF45 related protein-2) had been found by co-immunoprecipitations with anti-Brp antibodies by Dr. Manuela Schmidt (unpublished data). Mutants and antibodies for the further study of DREP- 2 were generated in this thesis. Yeast two hybrid results suggest that DREP-2 might interact with dynein light chain 2, while in vivo imaging indicates that DREP-2 might be involved in bidirectional axonal transport. (2) Coimmunoprecipitation and pull down experiments suggested that the ARFGAP [ADP-ribosylation factor (ARF)-directed GTPase activating protein (GAP)] protein GIT (G-protein coupled receptor kinase interacting protein) could interact with the endocytosis associated molecule Stoned B (StnB). Mutants in the dgit gene showed an accumulation of large size vesicles, membrane intermediates and decreased vesicle density at the 3rd instar larval neuromuscular junction (NMJ) by electron microscopy (EM). The phenotypes accumulation of large size vesicles and membrane intermediates could be rescued partially by expression of Drosophila GIT (DGIT) or human GIT in dgit mutant background. Furthermore, by immunofluorescence the dgit mutant shows specifically decreased levels of StnB, which could be restored partially by the expression of DGIT. These results strongly support the suggestion that DGIT interacts with StnB, which is involved in the regulation of vesicle size, endocytosis or recycling of synaptic vesicles (SVs). Furthermore, the dgit mutants also showed signs of a mislocalization of the presynaptic protein Brp relative to the postsynaptic protein GluRIID, which could be rescued by expression of DGIT or human GIT in the dgit mutant background, but not by StnB. These results suggest that GIT on one hand executes roles in the regulation of synaptic vesicle endocytosis, but potentially also has structural roles for synapse assembly (3) Djm-1 is a candidate locus to mediate mental retardation in human patients when it is mutated. As a first step towards an understanding of the mechanistic role of DJM-1, Drosophila genetics were used to address DJM-1 function. So far, however, the djm-1 mutant generated in this thesis did not show a nervous system phenotype.
Brustkrebs ist gegenwärtig die häufigste bösartige Erkrankung der Frau weltweit und verantwortlich für 15 % der Krebs¬todes-ursachen in der westlichen Welt. Maligne Erkrankungen in metastasierten Stadien gelten generell als unheilbar mit einem medianen Überleben von wenigen Jahren. Das LIM und SH3 Domänen Protein (LASP-1) ist ein spezielles fokales Ad¬hä¬sions-protein, das an den Vorgängen der Zellproliferation und -migration beteiligt ist. Der Knockdown von LASP-1 in metastatischen Brust- und Eier¬stock¬krebs-zelllinien führt zu einer starken Hemmung der Zellmigration und -proliferation. Um¬ge-kehrt kommt es nach Überexpression des Proteins in nicht neoplastischen Zellen zu einer erhöhten Migration. Bei den von uns untersuchten Patientinnen mit Brust- oder Eierstockkrebs korreliert die Überexpression des Proteins mit fortgeschrittener Tumor-größe und Lymphknoten-Metastasierung. Die genetische Analyse von 63 mikrodissektierten histologischen Brust-krebs-Schnittpräparaten mit anschließender qRT PCR auf LASP-1 ergab (mit nur einer positiven Probe; 1,6 %) allerdings keine Amplifikation des Gens. Es scheint, dass die LASP 1 Proteinüberexpression als aktiver Prozess in der Tumorgenese aufgefasst werden kann und in der Mehrheit der Brustkrebsfälle bevorzugt durch trans¬krip-tionelle Regulation als durch Gen¬amplifi¬ka-tion hervorgerufen wird. LASP-1 ist nicht ausschließlich ein zytosolisch lokalisiertes Protein, sondern in malignen Zellen außerdem im Zellkern nachweisbar. In einer Langzeitstudie (Januar 1985 – Dezember 2007) wurde anhand anti-LASP-1 gefärbter histologischer Schnittpräparate die LASP Expression bestimmt und mit dem Patienten-Überleben korreliert. Patientinnen mit nukleärer LASP-1-Lokalisation zeigen, im Vergleich zu nukleär-LASP-1 negativen Schnitten, ein signifikant (p = 0,0250) reduziertes Langzeitüberleben. Mit diesen Ergebnissen lassen sich zukünftig vielleicht prognostische Aussagen über die Auswirkungen der LASP-1-Expression für den einzelnen Patienten treffen.
For a large fraction of the proteins expressed in the human brain only the primary structure is known from the genome project. Proteins conserved in evolution can be studied in genetic models such as Drosophila. In this doctoral thesis monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) from the Wuerzburg Hybridoma library are produced and characterized with the aim to identify the target antigen. The mAb ab52 was found to be an IgM which recognized a cytosolic protein of Mr ~110 kDa on Western blots. The antigen was resolved by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2DE) as a single distinct spot. Mass spectrometric analysis of this spot revealed EPS-15 (epidermal growth factor receptor pathway substrate clone 15) to be a strong candidate. Another mAb from the library, aa2, was already found to recognize EPS-15, and comparison of the signal of both mAbs on Western blots of 1D and 2D electrophoretic separations revealed similar patterns, hence indicating that both antigens could represent the same protein. Finally absence of the wild-type signal in homozygous Eps15 mutants in a Western blot with ab52 confirmed the ab52 antigen to be EPS-15. Thus both the mAbs aa2 and ab52 recognize the Drosophila homologue of EPS-15. The mAb aa2, being an IgG, is more suitable for applications like immunoprecipitation (IP). It has already been submitted to the Developmental Studies Hybridoma Bank (DSHB) to be easily available for the entire research community. The mAb na21 was also found to be an IgM. It recognizes a membrane associated antigen of Mr ~10 kDa on Western blots. Due to the membrane associated nature of the protein, it was not possible to resolve it by 2DE and due to the IgM nature of the mAb it was not possible to enrich the antigen by IP. Preliminary attempts to biochemically purify the endogenously expressed protein from the tissue, gave promising results but could not be completed due to lack of time. Thus biochemical purification of the protein seems possible in order to facilitate its identification by mass spectrometry. Several other mAbs were studied for their staining pattern on cryosections and whole mounts of Drosophila brains. However, many of these mAbs stained very few structures in the brain, which indicated that only a very limited amount of protein would be available as starting material. Because these antibodies did not produce signals on Western blots, which made it impossible to enrich the antigens by electrophoretic methods, we did not attempt their purification. However, the specific localization of these proteins makes them highly interesting and calls for their further characterization, as they may play a highly specialized role in the development and/or function of the neural circuits they are present in. The purification and identification of such low expression proteins would need novel methods of enrichment of the stained structures.
Seit der Entdeckung des ersten Gens für den Vitamin K Epoxid-Reduktase-Komplex (VKORC1), dem Schlüssel-Enzym für die Regenerierung von Vitamin K, sind keine zusätzlichen Komponenten des Komplexes beschrieben worden. Die einzige bekannte Funktion von VKORC1 ist bislang die Reduktion von Vitamin K-2,3-Epoxid, welches bei der post-translationalen Carboxylierung von Proteinen als oxidierter Kofaktor anfällt, und im sogenannten Vitamin K-Zyklus regeneriert wird. VKORC1 ist zugleich das Zielprotein antikoagulativer Medikamente der Coumarin-Gruppe, wie Warfarin oder Marcumar. Mutationen im VKORC1-Gen führen zu einem signifikanten Effekt auf die benötigte Coumarin-Dosis und die Stabilität der Hämostase in der Thrombosebehandlung mit Antikoagulanzien. Gleichzeitig mit VKORC1 wurde ein stark sequenz-homologes Protein identifiziert, das „VKORC1-like1“ (VKORC1L1) genannt wurde und dessen physiologische Funktion zu Beginn dieser Arbeit völlig unbekannt war. Die vorliegende Arbeit beschäftigte sich mit zwei Aspekten des Vitamin K-Stoffwechsels: A. Den enzym-kinetischen Eigenschaften und der subzellulären Lokalisation des VKORC1L1-Proteins sowie B. der Identifizierung und Charakterisierung von Proteinen, die Interaktionspartner der beiden VKOR-Proteine sein können. Die Ergebnisse können wie folgt zusammengefasst werden: A.1. Die enzym-kinetischen Untersuchungen zeigen starke Ähnlichkeiten zwischen VKORC1 und VKORC1L1: Beide Enzyme haben eine Vitamin K-Epoxidase- und -Reduktase-Aktivität, wobei die Affinitäten zu Vitamin K2-Epoxid deutlich höher sind als die zu Vitamin K1-Epoxid. Beide Enzyme sind durch Warfarin hemmbar und der Austausch der vermutlich am Elektronentransfer beteiligten Cysteine an homologen Positionen führt in beiden Proteinen zu einem fast vollständigen Verlust der Aktivität. A.2. Mittels Ko-Lokalisation konnte VKORC1L1 – wie VKORC1 – in der ER-Membran lokalisiert werden. Folglich schließen wir, dass VKORC1L1 eine ähnliche Struktur, die gleiche zelluläre Lokalisation und zumindest in vitro auch eine VKOR-Aktivität hat und daher eventuell eine weitere Komponente des VKOR-Komplexes darstellen könnte. Allerdings sprechen gewichtige Argumente dagegen, dass beide Proteine funktionell austauschbar sind: Sowohl bei Patienten mit Mutationen in VKORC1 (VKCDF2-Erkrankung), als auch bei VKORC1-Knock-out Mäusen kann das intaktes VKORC1L1-Protein die inaktivierende Mutation im C1-Gen nicht kompensieren. B.1. Mit einem für Membranproteine adaptierten, modifizierten Yeast-Two-Hybrid Screen (Split-Ubiquitin-System) konnten mit VKORC1 und VKORC1L1 als Köder 114 Proteine aus einer Leber-cDNA-Bank als potentielle Interaktionspartner identifiziert werden. Davon wurden 6 Proteine aufgrund ihrer Trefferhäufigkeit und funktioneller Überlegungen mit Hilfe von Ko-Immunpräzipitationsexperimenten und Ko-Immunlokalisation näher untersucht. Interessanterweise zeigen die beiden Trefferlisten starke Überschneidungen. B.2. Es konnte eine in vitro- Interaktion von VKORC1 mit sich selbst und mit VKORC1L1 nachgewiesen werden, die bisher nicht bekannt war. Dies könnte auf der hohen Sequenz- und Struktur-Homologie der beiden Proteine beruhen, führt aber auch zu neuen Hypothesen bezüglich des Vitamin K-Stoffwechsels. B.3. Die Interaktion von VKORC1 und dem „stress-associated endoplasmic reticulum protein 1“ (SERP1) bringt Vitamin K in Zusammenhang mit oxidativem Stress. Dazu passen auch die neuesten Ergebnisse aus der Arbeitsgruppe von Johannes Oldenburg (vormals Würzburg, jetzt Bonn) zur Funktion von VKORC1L1, die eine protektive Rolle von Vitamin K beim Schutz der Zelle vor reaktiven Sauerstoffverbindungen nahe legen. Ob und wie Vitamin K und VKORC1L1 einen neuen Schutzmechanismus gegen Sauerstoffradikale bilden bedarf weiterer Untersuchungen. B.4. Ferner wurde eine Interaktion zwischen VKORC1 und dem „Emopamil-binding-protein“ (EBP) nachgewiesen. Mutationen in EBP führen zu der seltenen genetischen Krankheit Chondrodysplasia punctata. Die Ähnlichkeit der Symptomatik zwischen Chondrodysplasia punctata und der sogenannten Warfarin-Embryopathie, die durch überhöhte Dosierung von Coumarinen während der Schwangerschaft verursacht wird, legt einen Zusammenhang zwischen Vitamin K- und dem Kalziumstoffwechsel nahe. B5. In den Ko-Immunpräzipitationsexperimenten nicht bestätigt haben sich die initial positiven Proteine Protein-Disulfid-Isomerase (PDIA6), CD63, und Fibrinogen-Gamma (FGG). Die Ergebnisse geben Hinweise auf neue Funktionen der VKOR-Proteine beim Schutz vor oxidativem Stress und in der Verbindung zum Kalzium-Stoffwechsel. Beide Aspekte bedürfen weiterführender Untersuchungen. Im Hinblick auf diese neuen Funktionen wäre auch eine kritische Betrachtung der übrigen 85 primären Treffer des Split-Ubiquitin-Screens sinnvoll.