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Institute
- Institut für Humangenetik (228) (remove)
Sonstige beteiligte Institutionen
- Comprehensive Hearing Center, Department of ORL, Plastic, Aesthetic and Reconstructive Head and Neck Surgery, Würzburg, Germany (1)
- DNA Analytics Core Facility, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany (1)
- Department of Animal Ecology and Tropical Biology, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany (1)
- Maastricht University, Maastricht, the Netherlands (1)
Epimutations in Germ-Cell and Embryo Development: Possible Consequences for Assisted Reproduction
(2011)
Assisted reproductive technologies (ART) emerged in the late 1970’s as a therapy for human infertility. Up till now more than 3 million babies have been conceived through ART, demonstrating the safety and efficiency of the technique. Published reports showed an increase in the rate of imprinting disorders (Beckwith Wiedemann Syndrome, Angelman Syndrome, etc.) in babies born after ART. What are the effects imposed through ART and should researchers reassess its safety and implications on the future offspring? Throughout this thesis, I analyzed the methylation patterns of germ cells and embryos to determine whether in vitro maturation and in vitro fertilization have a negative impact on the epigenetic patterns. Furthermore, DNA methylation was compared between sperm of infertile and presumably fertile controls in order to understand whether epigenetic disturbances lead to infertility at the first place. The occurrence of methylation aberrations in germ cells of infertile patients could be transmitted to new-borns and then cause epigenetic disorders. In order to elucidate the imprinting status within single cells, I developed a new technique based on limiting dilution where bisulfite treated DNA is distributed across several wells before amplification. This allowed methylation measurement at the single allele level as well parent of origin detection. In a total of 141 sperm samples from couples undergoing in vitro fertilization (IVF) or intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) including 106 with male factor or combined infertility and 28 with female infertility, I detected a significant correlation between lower quality of semen parameters (sperm count, percentage of abnormal sperm, and percentage of motile sperm) and the rate of imprinting errors. ALU repeats displayed a higher methylation in sperm DNA of patients leading to a pregnancy and live birth, compared to patients in which pregnancy was not achieved or a spontaneous abortion occurred. A discriminant analysis based on ALU methylation allowed correct classification of >70% of cases. Preliminary data from illumina methylation arrays where more than 27,000 CpGs were analyzed determined that only a single CpG site from the open reading frame C14orf93 was significantly different between the infertile and presumably fertile control group. However, further improvements on data normalization might permit detection of other differentially methylated regions. Comparison of embryos after natural conception, in vitro fertilized embryos from superovulated oocytes, and embryos achieved through fertilization of in vitro cultured oocytes revealed no dramatic effect on the imprinting patterns of Igf2r, H19, and Snrpn. Oocyte cryotop vitrification did not result in a dramatic increase of imprinting mutations in oocytes even though the rate of sporadic methylation errors in single Snrpn CpGs were higher within the in-vitrified group. Collectively, the results I will present within this thesis suggest an increase in the rate of imprinting errors within the germ cells of infertile patients, in addition to a decrease in genome wide methylation of ALU repetitive elements. I did not observe a detrimental effect on the methylation patterns of oocytes and the resulting embryos using in vitro maturation of oocytes and/or standard IVF with in vivo grown superovulated oocytes.
Rare variants in at least 10 genes, including BRCA1, BRCA2, PALB2, ATM, and CHEK2, are associated with increased risk of breast cancer; however, these variants, in combination with common variants identified through genome-wide association studies, explain only a fraction of the familial aggregation of the disease. To identify further susceptibility genes, we performed a two-stage whole-exome sequencing study. In the discovery stage, samples from 1528 breast cancer cases enriched for breast cancer susceptibility and 3733 geographically matched unaffected controls were sequenced. Using five different filtering and gene prioritization strategies, 198 genes were selected for further validation. These genes, and a panel of 32 known or suspected breast cancer susceptibility genes, were assessed in a validation set of 6211 cases and 6019 controls for their association with risk of breast cancer overall, and by estrogen receptor (ER) disease subtypes, using gene burden tests applied to loss-of-function and rare missense variants. Twenty genes showed nominal evidence of association (p-value < 0.05) with either overall or subtype-specific breast cancer. Our study had the statistical power to detect susceptibility genes with effect sizes similar to ATM, CHEK2, and PALB2, however, it was underpowered to identify genes in which susceptibility variants are rarer or confer smaller effect sizes. Larger sample sizes would be required in order to identify such genes.
The current molecular genetic diagnostic rates for hereditary hearing loss (HL) vary considerably according to the population background. Pakistan and other countries with high rates of consanguineous marriages have served as a unique resource for studying rare and novel forms of recessive HL. A combined exome sequencing, bioinformatics analysis, and gene mapping approach for 21 consanguineous Pakistani families revealed 13 pathogenic or likely pathogenic variants in the genes GJB2, MYO7A, FGF3, CDC14A, SLITRK6, CDH23, and MYO15A, with an overall resolve rate of 61.9%. GJB2 and MYO7A were the most frequently involved genes in this cohort. All the identified variants were either homozygous or compound heterozygous, with two of them not previously described in the literature (15.4%). Overall, seven missense variants (53.8%), three nonsense variants (23.1%), two frameshift variants (15.4%), and one splice-site variant (7.7%) were observed. Syndromic HL was identified in five (23.8%) of the 21 families studied. This study reflects the extreme genetic heterogeneity observed in HL and expands the spectrum of variants in deafness-associated genes.
CDC14A encodes the Cell Division Cycle 14A protein and has been associated with autosomal recessive non-syndromic hearing loss (DFNB32), as well as hearing impairment and infertile male syndrome (HIIMS) since 2016. To date, only nine variants have been associated in patients whose initial symptoms included moderate-to-profound hearing impairment. Exome analysis of Iranian and Pakistani probands who both showed bilateral, sensorineural hearing loss revealed a novel splice site variant (c.1421+2T>C, p.?) that disrupts the splice donor site and a novel frameshift variant (c.1041dup, p.Ser348Glnfs*2) in the gene CDC14A, respectively. To evaluate the pathogenicity of both loss-of-function variants, we analyzed the effects of both variants on the RNA-level. The splice variant was characterized using a minigene assay. Altered expression levels due to the c.1041dup variant were assessed using RT-qPCR. In summary, cDNA analysis confirmed that the c.1421+2T>C variant activates a cryptic splice site, resulting in a truncated transcript (c.1414_1421del, p.Val472Leufs*20) and the c.1041dup variant results in a defective transcript that is likely degraded by nonsense-mediated mRNA decay. The present study functionally characterizes two variants and provides further confirmatory evidence that CDC14A is associated with a rare form of hereditary hearing loss.
Laut des aktuellen Reports der Weltgesundheitsorganisation sind ca. 466 Millionen Menschen weltweit von einer Hörstörung (HS) betroffen. Durch die enorme Heterogenität und die klinische Variabilität, die diese Erkrankung ausmacht, und viele bisher nicht mit HS assoziierte Gene, bleibt ein großer Teil der erblich bedingten HS in vielen Familien unaufgeklärt. Die Entwicklung moderner Techniken, wie die Next-Generation Sequenzierung (NGS) und der Fortschritt bei der Untersuchung von Modellorganismen trugen jedoch in den letzten Jahren immens dazu bei, neue Gene zu identifizieren, die innerhalb des auditorischen Signalwegs oder damit assoziierten Strukturen beteiligt sind. Die vorliegende Arbeit umfasst Ergebnisse dreier Veröffentlichungen, in denen iranische und pakistanische Familien und eine deutsche Familie mit erblich bedingter HS untersucht und neue, krankheitsverursachende Varianten identifiziert und funktionell charakterisiert wurden. Im ersten Abschnitt konnten zwei neue rezessive Varianten im CDC14A-Gen als krankheitsverursachend identifiziert werden, die zu einem potentiellen Funktionsverlust des kodierten Proteins in einer iranischen und einer pakistanischen Familie führen. Mit Hilfe einer funktionellen Charakterisierung auf RNA-Ebene (Spleiß-Assay und RT-qPCR) konnte der Funktionsverlust beider Varianten bestätigt werden. Der zweite Abschnitt umfasst eine deutsche Familie mit sieben von einer HS betroffenen Familienmitgliedern, in der eine heterozygote missense Variante in MYO3A identifiziert wurde. In der vorliegenden Arbeit konnte somit die erste autosomal dominante Variante in einer europäischen Familie mit einer bilingualen, sensorineuralen Hochtonschwerhörigkeit beschrieben werden und der dominante Charakter von MYO3A bestätigt werden. Im dritten Abschnitt konnten die krankheitsverursachenden Varianten in 13 Familien aus einer Kohorte mit 21 pakistanischen Familien mit einer syndromalen und nicht-syndromalen HS ausfindig gemacht werden. Hierbei wurden sowohl bekannte, als auch bisher nicht beschriebene Varianten detektiert. Die Aufklärungsrate innerhalb dieser Kohorte betrug 61,9% und es konnte somit das Spektrum syndromaler und nicht-syndromaler HS erweitert werden. Der letzte Abschnitt dieser Arbeit beschreibt eine iranische Familie mit einer milden HS und milden Intelligenzminderung, in der eine homozygote missense Variante im Kandidatengen DBN1 ausfindig gemacht wurde. Um die Funktion und die Auswirkungen eines potentiellen Verlusts des codierten Proteins Drebrin zu untersuchen, wurden immunhistochemische Färbungen und auditorische Messungen an Dbn1 Knockout (KO)-Mäusen durchgeführt. Hierbei konnte eine Expression innerhalb der Nervenfasern, die innere Haarzellen innervieren, nachgewiesen werden. Eine leicht verlängerte Latenz für die ABR-Welle IV in KO-Mäusen im Vergleich zum Wildtyp ergab den Hinweis auf einen Defekt innerhalb des zentralen auditorischen Signalwegs, der möglicherweise mit einer Sprachverarbeitungsstörung im Menschen korreliert.
Die X-gebundene Myotubuläre Myopathie (XLMTM) ist eine sehr seltene und schwere angeborene Muskelschwäche, die durch Mutationen im MTM 1 Gen verursacht wird. In der histopathologischen Untersuchung ist auffällig, dass die Muskelfasern fetalen Myotuben ähneln. Das Gen MTM 1 wurde auf Xq28 lokalisiert und kodiert für das Protein Myotubularin. Die Myotubularine stellen eine große Familie eukaryotischer Lipid-Phosphatasen und Anti-Phosphatasen dar. Da der direkte Nachweis von Myotubularin in Muskelbiopsien von Patienten aufgrund der sehr niedrigen Expression nicht gelingt, weder durch immunhistochemische Methoden noch im Western-Blot oder durch einen spezifischen Enzymtest, steht ein funktioneller Test für die gefundenen Genmutationen nicht unmittelbar zur Verfügung. In der Arbeit sollte versucht werden, zunächst Wildtyp-Myotubularin im bakteriel-len System zu exprimieren, im Western-Blot nachzuweisen und die Phosphatase-Enzymaktivität in vitro zu messen. Als Substrat für Myotubularin wurde p-Nitrophenolphosphat verwendet. In der Durchfüh-rung des experimentellen Teils zeigten sich verschiedene Probleme, aus denen sich jedoch interessante Schlüsse ziehen liessen. Zum ei-nen konnte der Verdacht bekräftigt werden, dass Myotubularin keine Dual-spezifische Phosphatase ist, wie zunächst angenommen wurde. Problematisch war auch, dass der E.coli M15 Bakterienstamm an-scheindend selbst so viele eigene Phosphatasen produzierte, die das Substrat p-Nitrophenolphosphat dephosphorylierten. Diese Hintergrundgrundaktivität störte die eigentliche Aktivitätsmessung des Myotubularins und machte diese kaum verwertbar. Ebenso zeigte sich, dass das Myotubularin in dem untersuchten bakteriellen System nicht in größeren Mengen exprimiert wurde. Letzendlich ergab dies die Schlussfolgerung, dass zukünftige Untersuchungen berücksichtigen sollten, dass eukaryontische Expressionssysteme sich offensichtlich besser für die Mitglieder der Genfamilie der Myotubularine eigenen und dass Myotubularine Lipidphopshatasen sind mit in vivo sehr spe-zifischen Substraten (Phopshatidyl-Inositolphosphate). Jedes artifizielle Substrat sollte diese natürlichen Strukturen möglichst nachahmen.
Das Hauptziel der medizinischen Genetik ist es, die Ursachen für genetisch hervorgerufene Krankheiten zu finden, um eine bessere Behandlung der Patienten zu gewährleisten, sei es um die Medikamente auf den Metabolismus des Individuums anzupassen oder natürlich dazu, um die Krankheit selbst zu behandeln und in Zukunft auch heilen zu können. Um dieses Ziel zu erreichen werden immer neue Technologien entwickelt, die mit Hilfe von bereits etablierten Methoden auf ihre Eignung hin überprüft werden müssen. Eine der neuesten Entwicklungen stellt die Array-Technologie dar. In dieser Studie wurde versucht zu überprüfen, inwieweit diese neue Methode zur Analyse von einzelnen bis wenigen Patienten mit bestimmten Syndromen geeignet ist. Dafür wurden mehrere Patienten mir sehr unterschiedlichen Phänotypen ausgesucht, die verschiedene Ursachen und Entstehungsmechanismen der genetischen und phänotypischen Veränderung vermuten ließen. Die erste hier dargestellte Publikation beschreibt einen Fall mit einer einseitigen Schalleitungsschwerhörigkeit, der mit einer Translokation der(18)t(18;22) mit der involvierten Deletion 22pter→q11.21, sowie den darin enthaltenden Genen der CES-Region, erklärt wurde. Der in der zweiten Publikation beschriebene Fall mit MR und Verhaltensauffälligkeiten wurde mit einer intragenischen Mikrodeletion im Gen IL1RAPL1 korreliert. Zwei Fälle autoimmunbedingten Leberversagens bei einem Phelan-McDermid Syndrom wurden in der dritten Publikation primär auf eine Deletion des Gens PIM3 zurückgeführt. Ein autistischer Junge mit einer Entwicklungsverzögerung und gewalttätigen Ausbrüchen zeigte in der vierten Publikation ein sehr komplexes Rearrangement mit mehreren Brüchen im Gen CNTNAP2 und Deletionen anderer Gene, die zusammen für den Phänotyp verantwortlich sein können. Keine Mikrodeletion, sondern eine Epimutation in Chromosom 14q32.2 war die Ursache für die Adipositas mit einer Sprachentwicklungsverzögerung bei einem Jungen, der in der fünften Publikation beschrieben ist. Um die o. g. genetischen Veränderungen zu finden, wurden verschiedene Methoden wie die GTG-Bänderung, FISH, MLPA und verschiedene Array-Systeme verwendet. Mit jeder von diesen Methoden konnten neue und einander ergänzende Daten zu den genetischen Veränderungen eines Individuums gewonnen werden. Keine der Methoden konnte für sich allein ein vollständiges Bild liefern. Die GTG-Bänderung zeigt zwar das ganze Genom, hat aber die Limitierung der niedrigen Auflösung. Sie konnte dennoch Anhaltspunkte für höherauflösende Untersuchungsmethoden geben. Dazu gehörte die FISH, die entweder zur feineren Auflösung der Bänderungsdaten oder zur Bestätigung von Array-Befunden verwendet wurde. Die MLPA wurde unterstützend auf der Suche nach sehr kleinen Veränderungen in eingegrenzten Regionen eingesetzt. In einigen der beschriebenen Fälle wurden trotz eines negativen Bänderungsbefundes aufgrund des auffälligen Phänotyps genetische Ursachen vermutet, und daher feiner auflösende Methoden eingesetzt. Die am höchsten auflösenden Array-basierten Methoden wurden eingesetzt, wenn ansonsten keine Ergebnisse zu erzielen waren, oder eine feinere Auflösung der vorhandenen Daten erreicht werden sollte. Anschließend konnten die Erkenntnisse über die Veränderungen mit dem Phänotyp korreliert werden, um ein Kandidatengen oder eine Kandidatengenregion zu ermitteln. Aufgrund der großen Datenmenge aus den Array-Experimenten, waren zur Entscheidung über die Relevanz der Daten bezüglich der Entstehung des Phänotyps umfassende Datenbank- und Literatur-Recherchen notwendig. Zusammenfassend kann gesagt werden, dass die Array-Technologie einen großen Fortschritt darstellt, in der Suche nach Ursachen für genetische Erkrankungen. Sie hat aber technische Limitierungen und um das Problem der Phänotyp-Genotyp-Korrelation zu vereinfachen, werden weltweit noch viele Daten gesammelt werden müssen. Das ist eine Frage der Zeit und der Weiterentwicklung geeigneter Technologien.
BRCA1-associated breast and ovarian cancer risks can be modified by common genetic variants. To identify further cancer risk-modifying loci, we performed a multi-stage GWAS of 11,705 BRCA1 carriers (of whom 5,920 were diagnosed with breast and 1,839 were diagnosed with ovarian cancer), with a further replication in an additional sample of 2,646 BRCA1 carriers. We identified a novel breast cancer risk modifier locus at 1q32 for BRCA1 carriers (rs2290854, P = 2.7 x 10(-8), HR = 1.14, 95% CI: 1.09-1.20). In addition, we identified two novel ovarian cancer risk modifier loci: 17q21.31 (rs17631303, P = 1.4 x 10(-8), HR = 1.27, 95% CI: 1.17-1.38) and 4q32.3 (rs4691139, P = 3.4 x 10(-8), HR = 1.20, 95% CI: 1.17-1.38). The 4q32.3 locus was not associated with ovarian cancer risk in the general population or BRCA2 carriers, suggesting a BRCA1-specific association. The 17q21.31 locus was also associated with ovarian cancer risk in 8,211 BRCA2 carriers (P = 2 x 10(-4)). These loci may lead to an improved understanding of the etiology of breast and ovarian tumors in BRCA1 carriers. Based on the joint distribution of the known BRCA1 breast cancer risk-modifying loci, we estimated that the breast cancer lifetime risks for the 5% of BRCA1 carriers at lowest risk are 28%-50% compared to 81%-100% for the 5% at highest risk. Similarly, based on the known ovarian cancer risk-modifying loci, the 5% of BRCA1 carriers at lowest risk have an estimated lifetime risk of developing ovarian cancer of 28% or lower, whereas the 5% at highest risk will have a risk of 63% or higher. Such differences in risk may have important implications for risk prediction and clinical management for BRCA1 carriers.
Supernumerary (B) chromosomes are dispensable elements found in many eukaryote genomes in addition to standard (A) chromosomes. In many respects, B chromosomes resemble sex chromosomes, so that a common ancestry for them has frequently been suggested. For instance, B chromosomes in grasshoppers, and other insects, show a pycnotic cycle of condensation-decondensation during meiosis remarkably similar to that of the X chromosome. In some cases, B chromosome size is even very similar to that of the X chromosome. These resemblances have led to suggest the X as the B ancestor in many cases. In addition, sex chromosome origin from B chromosomes has also been suggested. In this article, we review the existing evidence for both evolutionary pathways, as well as sex differences for B frequency at adult and embryo progeny levels, B chromosome effects or B chromosome transmission. In addition, we review cases found in the literature showing sex-ratio distortion associated with B chromosome presence, the most extreme case being the paternal sex ratio (PSR) chromosomes in some Hymenoptera. We finally analyse the possibility of B chromosome regularisation within the host genome and, as a consequence of it, whether B chromosomes can become regular members of the host genome.
Amphiphysin 2, encoded by BIN1, is a key factor for membrane sensing and remodelling in different cell types. Homozygous BIN1 mutations in ubiquitously expressed exons are associated with autosomal recessive centronuclear myopathy (CNM), a mildly progressive muscle disorder typically showing abnormal nuclear centralization on biopsies. In addition, misregulation of BIN1 splicing partially accounts for the muscle defects in myotonic dystrophy (DM). However, the muscle-specific function of amphiphysin 2 and its pathogenicity in both muscle disorders are not well understood. In this study we identified and characterized the first mutation affecting the splicing of the muscle-specific BIN1 exon 11 in a consanguineous family with rapidly progressive and ultimately fatal centronuclear myopathy. In parallel, we discovered a mutation in the same BIN1 exon 11 acceptor splice site as the genetic cause of the canine Inherited Myopathy of Great Danes (IMGD). Analysis of RNA from patient muscle demonstrated complete skipping of exon 11 and BIN1 constructs without exon 11 were unable to promote membrane tubulation in differentiated myotubes. Comparative immunofluorescence and ultrastructural analyses of patient and canine biopsies revealed common structural defects, emphasizing the importance of amphiphysin 2 in membrane remodelling and maintenance of the skeletal muscle triad. Our data demonstrate that the alteration of the muscle-specific function of amphiphysin 2 is a common pathomechanism for centronuclear myopathy, myotonic dystrophy, and IMGD. The IMGD dog is the first faithful model for human BIN1-related CNM and represents a mammalian model available for preclinical trials of potential therapies.
Sechs verschiedene Tumorzelllinien aus duktalen Pankreaskarzinomen transgener TGFalpha/p53+/-M?se wurden molekular-zytogenetisch durch Spectral Karyotyping analysiert, um Hinweise auf sekund?e genetische Ver?derungen zu erhalten, die f? die Tumorgenese in diesem Mausmodell verantwortlich sind. Es wurden haupts?hlich numerische Abberationen mit hypertriploiden bis hypotetraploiden Karyotypen detektiert, wohingegen durchschnittlich nur 4,3 Strukturaberrationen pro Metaphase nachgewiesen werden konnten. Fast immer stellten sich einige kleine Markerchromosomen dar, die durch SKY nicht eindeutig identifiziert werden konnten. Auff?ligste Ver?derung der Zelllinie TD2 (MMUPaTu7 und 8=7B) war ein gro?s Markerchromosom, dessen proximaler Anteil mit drei charakteristischen dunklen Banden aus Material von Chromosom 11 bestand, w?rend der distale Abschnitt zu Chromosom 5 geh?te. Durch FISH-Analyse mit spezifischen BAC-Proben f? das Chromosom 11 konnte hierf? eine Amplifikation der Kandidatengene Egfr und c-Rel festgestellt werden. Auch in den anderen Zelllinien traten geh?ft Strukuraberrationen des Chromosoms 11 auf, f? die ebenfalls eine Beteiligung dieser Genloci postuliert werden kann. Weitere strukturelle Ver?derungen betrafen Chromosom 15 mit c-Myc-Amplifikationen in Form von extrachromosomalen "double minutes", welche in h?eren Passagen der Zelllinie TD2 als homogeneously stained regions (HSR) integriert an variablen Positionen des Chromosoms 6 sichtbar wurden. In den analysierten Metaphasen trat zus?zlich h?fig ein vergrößertes Chromosom 8 auf, allerdings im Bandenmuster mit unterschiedlichen Amplifikationseinheiten, wobei ein Gewinn des dort lokalisierten Transkriptionsfaktors Jun-B m?lich w?e. F? eine genauere Charakterisierung der in die verschiedenen Strukturaberrationen involvierten Kandidatengene sind gezielte FISH-Analysen mit lokusspezifischen BAC-Proben oder andere weiterf?rende molekular-genetische Untersuchungen erforderlich.
Fanconi Anämie ist eine seltene rezessiv vererbte Erkrankung, deren zu Grunde liegende Enzymdefekte in ein Netzwerk unterschiedlichster DNA-Reparaturproteine eingewoben sind. Phylogenetisch sind uns Vögel relativ nahe verwandt, was sie zu einem guten Modellorganismus jenseits der Säugetiermodelle macht. Eine von Hühnerzellen abgeleitete Zelllinie (DT40) wurde bereits schon breit eingesetzt um die Funktion des FA-Signalwegs zu erforschen. Nachdem auch das Hühnergenom vollständig entschlüsselt wurde, konnten zu fast allen FA-Genen Orthologe gefunden werden. Unter den zahlreichen FA-Genen sind für diese Arbeit vor allem FANCC und -G von Bedeutung, da beide Gene auf dem Z-Geschlechtschromosom des Huhns liegen und eine Inaktivierung des zweiten Z-Chromosoms beim Hahn äquivalent zur X-Inaktivierung beim Menschen nicht stattfindet. Somit sollte es ein ´natürliches´ Gendosisungleichgewicht zwischen den Geschlechtern geben. Im durchgeführten Southern Blot konnte keine geschlechtsspezifisch weibliche Bande (für FANCC und -G) gefunden werden. Somit ist davon auszugehen, dass die FA-Gene C und G ausschließlich auf dem Z-Chromosom lokalisiert sind. Dies wurde auch nochmals mittels FISH bestätigt - beide Gene fanden sich auf dem kurzen Arm des Z-Chromosoms (FANCC zentromernah, FANCG zentromerfern). Aus Studien mit DT40 Zellen ist bereits bekannt, dass FA defiziente Zellen ähnlich wie humane FA-Zellen eine Hypersensitivität gegenüber Substanzen zeigen, die DNA-crosslinks verursachen. In Anlehnung an die humane FA-Diagnostik wurden die neu etablierten embryonalen Fibroblasten mit unterschiedlichen Konzentrationen und Einwirkzeiten von MMC behandelt und die Schäden ausgewertet. In allen Untersuchungen trugen die weiblichen Zellen mehr Schäden davon als die männlichen. Bei niedrigen Konzentrationen zeigte sich dies nur als Trend, bei höheren MMC-Konzentrationen und längeren Einwirkzeiten fanden sich bei fast allen durchgeführten Untersuchungen auch statistisch signifikante Unterschiede. Somit ergibt sich aus dieser Arbeit ein deutlicher Hinweis auf ein funktionelles Ungleichgewicht zwischen Henne und Hahn was die DNA-Reparatur nach Schädigung durch MMC angeht.
The transcription factor 12 (tcf12) is a basic Helix-Loop-Helix protein (bHLH) of the E-protein family, proven to play an important role in developmental processes like neurogenesis, mesoderm formation, and cranial vault development. In humans, mutations in TCF12 lead to craniosynostosis, a congenital birth disorder characterized by the premature fusion of one or several of the cranial sutures. Current research has been primarily focused on functional studies of TCF12, hence the cellular expression profile of this gene during embryonic development and early stages of ossification remains poorly understood. Here we present the establishment and detailed analysis of two transgenic tcf12:EGFP fluorescent zebrafish (Danio rerio) reporter lines. Using these transgenic lines, we analyzed the general spatiotemporal expression pattern of tcf12 during different developmental stages and put emphasis on skeletal development and cranial suture patterning. We identified robust tcf12 promoter-driven EGFP expression in the central nervous system (CNS), the heart, the pronephros, and the somites of zebrafish embryos. Additionally, expression was observed inside the muscles and bones of the viscerocranium in juvenile and adult fish. During cranial vault development, the transgenic fish show a high amount of tcf12 expressing cells at the growth fronts of the ossifying frontal and parietal bones and inside the emerging cranial sutures. Subsequently, we tested the transcriptional activity of three evolutionary conserved non-coding elements (CNEs) located in the tcf12 locus by transient transgenic assays and compared their in vivo activity to the expression pattern determined in the transgenic tcf12:EGFP lines. We could validate two of them as tcf12 enhancer elements driving specific gene expression in the CNS during embryogenesis. Our newly established transgenic lines enhance the understanding of tcf12 gene regulation and open up the possibilities for further functional investigation of these novel tcf12 enhancer elements in zebrafish.
Community-acquired (CA) Staphylococcus aureus cause various diseases even in healthy individuals. Enhanced virulence of CA-strains is partly attributed to increased production of toxins such as phenol-soluble modulins (PSM). The pathogen is internalized efficiently by mammalian host cells and intracellular S. aureus has recently been shown to contribute to disease. Upon internalization, cytotoxic S. aureus strains can disrupt phagosomal membranes and kill host cells in a PSM-dependent manner. However, PSM are not sufficient for these processes. Here we screened for factors required for intracellular S. aureus virulence. We infected escape reporter host cells with strains from an established transposon mutant library and detected phagosomal escape rates using automated microscopy. We thereby, among other factors, identified a non-ribosomal peptide synthetase (NRPS) to be required for efficient phagosomal escape and intracellular survival of S. aureus as well as induction of host cell death. By genetic complementation as well as supplementation with the synthetic NRPS product, the cyclic dipeptide phevalin, wild-type phenotypes were restored. We further demonstrate that the NRPS is contributing to virulence in a mouse pneumonia model. Together, our data illustrate a hitherto unrecognized function of the S. aureus NRPS and its dipeptide product during S. aureus infection.
Introduction:
Individuals carrying pathogenic mutations in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes have a high lifetime risk of breast cancer. BRCA1 and BRCA2 are involved in DNA double-strand break repair, DNA alterations that can be caused by exposure to reactive oxygen species, a main source of which are mitochondria. Mitochondrial genome variations affect electron transport chain efficiency and reactive oxygen species production. Individuals with different mitochondrial haplogroups differ in their metabolism and sensitivity to oxidative stress. Variability in mitochondrial genetic background can alter reactive oxygen species production, leading to cancer risk. In the present study, we tested the hypothesis that mitochondrial haplogroups modify breast cancer risk in BRCA1/2 mutation carriers.
Methods:
We genotyped 22,214 (11,421 affected, 10,793 unaffected) mutation carriers belonging to the Consortium of Investigators of Modifiers of BRCA1/2 for 129 mitochondrial polymorphisms using the iCOGS array. Haplogroup inference and association detection were performed using a phylogenetic approach. ALTree was applied to explore the reference mitochondrial evolutionary tree and detect subclades enriched in affected or unaffected individuals.
Results:
We discovered that subclade T1a1 was depleted in affected BRCA2 mutation carriers compared with the rest of clade T (hazard ratio (HR) = 0.55; 95% confidence interval (CI), 0.34 to 0.88; P = 0.01). Compared with the most frequent haplogroup in the general population (that is, H and T clades), the T1a1 haplogroup has a HR of 0.62 (95% CI, 0.40 to 0.95; P = 0.03). We also identified three potential susceptibility loci, including G13708A/rs28359178, which has demonstrated an inverse association with familial breast cancer risk.
Conclusions:
This study illustrates how original approaches such as the phylogeny-based method we used can empower classical molecular epidemiological studies aimed at identifying association or risk modification effects.
Die Fanconi-Anämie ist eine autosomal-rezessiv vererbte Krankheit, die mit progredientem Knochenmarksversagen, Fehlbildungen und Tumoren einhergeht. Diagnostiziert wird diese Krankheit durch eine vermehrte Chromosomenbrüchigkeit nach Behandlung mit Diepoxybutan oder Mitomycin C oder durch einen erhöhten Anteil von Zellen in der G2-Phase in der Durchflußzytometrie. Bei einigen Patienten wurden Verläufe mit stabilen Blutbildern beschrieben. Als Erklärung wurde das Vorhandensein einer Mosaikkonstellation bei diesen Patienten diskutiert. Hier wird ein FA-Patient der Komplementationsgruppe A beschrieben, bei dem es im Alter von 2 Jahren zu einer Thrombozytopenie kam und ein dysplastisches Knochenmark vorlag. Zusätzlich liegt bei dem Patienten noch ein Wachstumshormonmangel bei dysplastischer Hypophyse vor. Im Alter von 3 ½ Jahren kam es zu einer deutlichen Stabilisierung des Blutbildes; auch fand sich bei wiederholten Knochenmarkspunktionen ein normozelluläres Mark. Nachdem zuvor die Diagnose FA mittels Chromosomenbruchanalyse und Durchflußzytometrie gestellt und später durch Untersuchung von Fibroblasten bestätigt worden war, stellte sich jetzt die Frage eines Mosaiks. Weitere Zellzyklusanalysen ergaben annähernd normale Befunde. Bei einer weiteren, im Alter von 6 Jahren durchgeführten Chromosomenbruchanalyse zeigte sich eine bimodale Verteilung der MMC-Sensitivität. Auf Grund dieser Bimodalität, also der Koexistenz von defekten und intakten Zellen, kann von der Existenz einer Mosaikkonstellation ausgegangen werden, die für das Auftreten intakter Zellen verantwortlich ist und dadurch zu einer Stabilisierung des Blutbildes geführt hat. Die erste Mutation des Patienten wurde auf Exon 10 gefunden, wo anstelle von Glutaminsäure ein Stopcodon gebildet wird. Ob die Mosaikkonstellation im vorliegenden Fall durch intragenes Crossover oder Genkonversion entstanden ist, kann erst nach der Identifizierung der Mutation auf dem zweiten Allel des Patienten abgeklärt werden.
While interplay between BRCA1 and AURKA-RHAMM-TPX2-TUBG1 regulates mammary epithelial polarization, common genetic variation in HMMR (gene product RHAMM) may be associated with risk of breast cancer in BRCA1 mutation carriers. Following on these observations, we further assessed the link between the AURKA-HMMR-TPX2-TUBG1 functional module and risk of breast cancer in BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation carriers. Forty-one single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were genotyped in 15,252 BRCA1 and 8,211 BRCA2 mutation carriers and subsequently analyzed using a retrospective likelihood approach. The association of HMMR rs299290 with breast cancer risk in BRCA1 mutation carriers was confirmed: per-allele hazard ratio (HR) = 1.10, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.04 - 1.15, p = 1.9 x 10\(^{-4}\) (false discovery rate (FDR)-adjusted p = 0.043). Variation in CSTF1, located next to AURKA, was also found to be associated with breast cancer risk in BRCA2 mutation carriers: rs2426618 per-allele HR = 1.10, 95% CI 1.03 - 1.16, p = 0.005 (FDR-adjusted p = 0.045). Assessment of pairwise interactions provided suggestions (FDR-adjusted p\(_{interaction}\) values > 0.05) for deviations from the multiplicative model for rs299290 and CSTF1 rs6064391, and rs299290 and TUBG1 rs11649877 in both BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers. Following these suggestions, the expression of HMMR and AURKA or TUBG1 in sporadic breast tumors was found to potentially interact, influencing patients' survival. Together, the results of this study support the hypothesis of a causative link between altered function of AURKA-HMMR-TPX2-TUBG1 and breast carcinogenesis in BRCA1/2 mutation carriers.
Background
The impact of task relevance on event-related potential amplitudes of early visual processing was previously demonstrated. Study designs, however, differ greatly, not allowing simultaneous investigation of how both degree of distraction and task relevance influence processing variations. In our study, we combined different features of previous tasks. We used a modified 1-back task in which task relevant and task irrelevant stimuli were alternately presented. The task irrelevant stimuli could be from the same or from a different category as the task relevant stimuli, thereby producing high and low distracting task irrelevant stimuli. In addition, the paradigm comprised a passive viewing condition. Thus, our paradigm enabled us to compare the processing of task relevant stimuli, task irrelevant stimuli with differing degrees of distraction, and passively viewed stimuli. EEG data from twenty participants was collected and mean P100 and N170 amplitudes were analyzed. Furthermore, a potential connection of stimulus processing and symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) was investigated.
Results
Our results show a modulation of peak N170 amplitudes by task relevance. N170 amplitudes to task relevant stimuli were significantly higher than to high distracting task irrelevant or passively viewed stimuli. In addition, amplitudes to low distracting task irrelevant stimuli were significantly higher than to high distracting stimuli. N170 amplitudes to passively viewed stimuli were not significantly different from either kind of task irrelevant stimuli. Participants with more symptoms of hyperactivity and impulsivity showed decreased N170 amplitudes across all task conditions. On a behavioral level, lower N170 enhancement efficiency was significantly correlated with false alarm responses.
Conclusions
Our results point to a processing enhancement of task relevant stimuli. Unlike P100 amplitudes, N170 amplitudes were strongly influenced by enhancement and enhancement efficiency seemed to have direct behavioral consequences. These findings have potential implications for models of clinical disorders affecting selective attention, especially ADHD.
Die Zellzyklusanalyse an kultivierten Fruchtwasserzellen zur pränatalen Diagnostik der Fanconi-Anämie ist nicht hinreichend zuverlässig und sollte aufgrund der teilweisen Verfälschung des Ergebnisses durch tetraploide Zellen und unzureichende Mitogenantwort sowie eventuell einen hohen Anteil nichtstimulierbarer Zellen (sog. noncycling fraction) stets mit einer weiteren Untersuchung an Nabelschnurblutzellen bestätigt werden. Durch eine Kombination von Amnionzelll- und NS-Blut- Untersuchung mit Hilfe der Durchflußzytometrie kann die Diagnose FA dann in der Mehrzahl der Fälle sicher ausgeschlossen oder bestätigt werden. Diese funktionelle Testung ist insbesondere für das Screening von Niedrig-Risiko-Schwangerschaften geeignet, bei denen eine pränatale Diagnostik auf Grund eines auffälligen Ultraschallbefundes bei sonst leerer Familienanamnese durchgeführt wird. Indirekte und direkte Gendiagnostik setzen die Kenntnis des betroffenen Gens bzw. beider krankheitsverursachender Mutationen voraus. Im engen zeitlichen Fenster der pränatalen Diagnostik können diese nicht immer rechtzeitig bestimmt werden. In den Fällen, in welchen sowohl funktionelle als auch Gendiagnostik durchgeführt wurde, konnte das Ergebnis der funktionellen Diagnostik stets bestätigt werden. Die einzige Fehldiagnose unter den hier vorgestellten Familien beruhte auf der Tatsache, dass in diesem Fall das Ergebnis der Zellzyklustestung an kultivierten Fruchtwasserzellen nicht durch eine Untersuchung von Nabelschnurblut kontrolliert wurde. Werden sowohl Amnionzellen als auch Nabelschnurblut untersucht und wird die Untersuchung der Amnionzellen durch eine einfache Sensitivitätsmessung gegenüber MMC ergänzt, so ist die funktionelle pränatale Diagnostik eine verlässliche Methode zur Bestätigung oder zum Ausschluß der Diagnose Fanconi-Anämie. Die größtmögliche Sicherheit der pränatalen Diagnostik wird jedoch mit molekulargenetischen Methoden erreicht. Dies ist insbesondere dann der Fall, wenn Komplementationsgruppenzugehörigkeit und die Art der krankheitsverursachenden Mutationen vor Beginn der Schwangerschaft bekannt sind.
Prerequisite to any biological laboratory assay employing living animals is consideration about its necessity, feasibility, ethics and the potential harm caused during an experiment. The imperative of these thoughts has led to the formulation of the 3R-principle, which today is a pivotal scientific standard of animal experimentation worldwide. The rising amount of laboratory investigations utilizing living animals throughout the last decades, either for regulatory concerns or for basic science, demands the development of alternative methods in accordance with 3R to help reduce experiments in mammals. This demand has resulted in investigation of additional vertebrate species displaying favourable biological properties. One prominent species among these is the zebrafish (Danio rerio), as these small laboratory ray-finned fish are well established in science today and feature outstanding biological characteristics. In this review, we highlight the advantages and general prerequisites of zebrafish embryos and larvae before free-feeding stages for toxicological testing, with a particular focus on cardio-, neuro, hepato- and nephrotoxicity. Furthermore, we discuss toxicokinetics, current advances in utilizing zebrafish for organ toxicity testing and highlight how advanced laboratory methods (such as automation, advanced imaging and genetic techniques) can refine future toxicological studies in this species.
In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden die Krankenblätter 366 kleiner Frühgeborener (Schwangerschaftswochen (SSW) 23/0 bis 32/0), die im Zeitraum von 1995 bis 2001 in der Frauenklinik des Klinikums Süd Nürnberg aus Einlingsschwangerschaften geboren wurden, retrospektiv ausgewertet. 136 Schwangere wurden nach einem vorzeitigen Blasensprung entbunden. 16 Kinder sind innerhalb der Neonatalperiode gestorben. Erfasst wurden zum einen wichtige prä- und peripartale Faktoren, u.a. mütterliches Alter und Risiko,Schwangerschaftsalter, Indikation zur Schwangerschaftsbeendigung und Entbindungsmodus, und zum anderen fetale Outcome-Parameter wie Gewicht, Apgar Score, Nabelarterien-pH-Wert, Base Excess und Intubation. Darüber hinaus wurden für jedes Kind die Morbiditätsdiagnosen und bei gestorbenen Kindern die Todesursachen aufgenommen. In 37 % der Fälle lag der Frühgeburt ein vorzeitiger Blasensprung zugrunde, in 31 % eine vorzeitige Wehentätigkeit. Die übrigen 32 % wurden durch maternofetale Pathologie hervorgerufen. Das Gewicht der Frühgeborenen lag zu 75 % unter 1500 g. In einer schweren Azidose befanden sich 6 % der Kinder. Eine starke Abhängigkeit der Outcome-Parameter von Poleinstellung und Entbindungsmodus war nicht zu beobachten. Frühgeborene nach fetaler Entbindungsindikation wiesen ein schlechteres Outcome auf als nach maternaler Indikation. Von den beobachteten Krankheiten kam das Atemnotsyndrom am häufigsten vor (in 63 % der Fälle), bei 20 % der Kinder III.-IV. Grades. Hochgradige Retinopathie (Grade III-IV) wurde in 5,4 %, retrolentale Fibroplasie in 0,6 % der Fälle diagnostiziert. Ein Drittel der Kinder erkrankten an einer Sepsis. Bei 18 % entwickelte sich im Verlauf eine bronchopulmonale Dysplasie. Schwere Hirnblutungen (III.-IV. Grades) erlitten 4,5 % der Frühgeborenen, periventrikuläre Leukomalazie 3,6 % und nekrotisierende Enterokolitis 1,5 %. Die genannten Krankheiten traten mit zunehmendem Schwangerschaftsalter weniger häufig auf. Die Prognose verbesserte sich besonders stark in den SSW 28-30. 6 von 16 Todesfällen (38 %) entfielen auf die ersten 24 Lebensstunden. Die Todesursachen waren Unreife/Mangelgeburt (31 %), Sepsis (31 %), Fehlbildungen und intrauterine Asphyxie (jeweils 13 %). Die neonatale Mortalitätsrate nahm mit zunehmendem Geburtsgewicht deutlich ab: Von 33 % für Frühgeborene unter 500 g, auf 3 % ab 1000 g. Die mittlere Latenzperiode nach einem vorzeitigen Blasensprung betrug 9,1 Tage (in 90 % der Fälle bis zu 3 Wochen, Maximum: 10 Wochen). Kinder beider betrachteter Gruppen von 23-28 und 29-32 SSW profitierten vom angewendeten konservativen Management: Bezüglich der Lungenreife war eine klare Verbesserung zu beobachten, falls die RDS-Prophylaxe 48 Stunden vor der Geburt abgeschlossen war. Sepsis kam zwar in der Gruppe mit niedrigerem Gestationsalter häufiger vor, war jedoch nicht direkt abhängig von der Latenzperiode. Im Vergleich mit anderen aktuellen Studien lagen die in dieser Arbeit festgestellten Morbiditätsraten etwa gleichauf. Die Kinder des eigenen Kollektivs entwickelten aber seltener intraventrikuläre Hämorrhagie und periventrikuläre Leukomalazie. Die starke Abnahme von Morbidität und Mortalität mit zunehmendem Schwangerschaftsalter wird in den Vergleichsstudien ähnlich berichtet. Eine nicht vernachlässigbare Überlebenschance kann bereits ab 23 SSW gegeben sein (4 von 6 dieser Kinder überlebten die Neonatalperiode). Die Chancen auf ein gesundes Überleben jedoch steigen besonders in den SSW 28-30. Daher ist in den sehr frühen SSW die Prolongation der Schwangerschaft zu empfehlen.
Usher syndrome, the most prevalent cause of combined hereditary vision and hearing impairment, is clinically and genetically heterogeneous. Moreover, several conditions with phenotypes overlapping Usher syndrome have been described. This makes the molecular diagnosis of hereditary deaf-blindness challenging. Here, we performed exome sequencing and analysis on 7 Mexican and 52 Iranian probands with combined retinal degeneration and hearing impairment (without intellectual disability). Clinical assessment involved ophthalmological examination and hearing loss questionnaire. Usher syndrome, most frequently due to biallelic variants in MYO7A (USH1B in 16 probands), USH2A (17 probands), and ADGRV1 (USH2C in 7 probands), was diagnosed in 44 of 59 (75%) unrelated probands. Almost half of the identified variants were novel. Nine of 59 (15%) probands displayed other genetic entities with dual sensory impairment, including Alström syndrome (3 patients), cone-rod dystrophy and hearing loss 1 (2 probands), and Heimler syndrome (1 patient). Unexpected findings included one proband each with Scheie syndrome, coenzyme Q10 deficiency, and pseudoxanthoma elasticum. In four probands, including three Usher cases, dual sensory impairment was either modified/aggravated or caused by variants in distinct genes associated with retinal degeneration and/or hearing loss. The overall diagnostic yield of whole exome analysis in our deaf-blind cohort was 92%. Two (3%) probands were partially solved and only 3 (5%) remained without any molecular diagnosis. In many cases, the molecular diagnosis is important to guide genetic counseling, to support prognostic outcomes and decisions with currently available and evolving treatment modalities.
Electric shock is a common stimulus for nociception-research and the most widely used reinforcement in aversive associative learning experiments. Yet, nothing is known about the mechanisms it recruits at the periphery. To help fill this gap, we undertook a genome-wide association analysis using 38 inbred Drosophila melanogaster strains, which avoided shock to varying extents. We identified 514 genes whose expression levels and/or sequences covaried with shock avoidance scores. We independently scrutinized 14 of these genes using mutants, validating the effect of 7 of them on shock avoidance. This emphasizes the value of our candidate gene list as a guide for follow-up research. In addition, by integrating our association results with external protein-protein interaction data we obtained a shock avoidance- associated network of 38 genes. Both this network and the original candidate list contained a substantial number of genes that affect mechanosensory bristles, which are hairlike organs distributed across the fly's body. These results may point to a potential role for mechanosensory bristles in shock sensation. Thus, we not only provide a first list of candidate genes for shock avoidance, but also point to an interesting new hypothesis on nociceptive mechanisms.
Introduction: Several common alleles have been shown to be associated with breast and/or ovarian cancer risk for BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers. Recent genome-wide association studies of breast cancer have identified eight additional breast cancer susceptibility loci: rs1011970 (9p21, CDKN2A/B), rs10995190 (ZNF365), rs704010 (ZMIZ1), rs2380205 (10p15), rs614367 (11q13), rs1292011 (12q24), rs10771399 (12p11 near PTHLH) and rs865686 (9q31.2).
Methods: To evaluate whether these single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) are associated with breast cancer risk for BRCA1 and BRCA2 carriers, we genotyped these SNPs in 12,599 BRCA1 and 7,132 BRCA2 mutation carriers and analysed the associations with breast cancer risk within a retrospective likelihood framework.
Results: Only SNP rs10771399 near PTHLH was associated with breast cancer risk for BRCA1 mutation carriers (per-allele hazard ratio (HR) = 0.87, 95% CI: 0.81 to 0.94, P-trend = 3 x 10\(^{-4}\)). The association was restricted to mutations proven or predicted to lead to absence of protein expression (HR = 0.82, 95% CI: 0.74 to 0.90, P-trend = 3.1 x 10\(^{-5}\), P-difference = 0.03). Four SNPs were associated with the risk of breast cancer for BRCA2 mutation carriers: rs10995190, P-trend = 0.015; rs1011970, P-trend = 0.048; rs865686, 2df P = 0.007; rs1292011 2df P = 0.03. rs10771399 (PTHLH) was predominantly associated with estrogen receptor (ER)-negative breast cancer for BRCA1 mutation carriers (HR = 0.81, 95% CI: 0.74 to 0.90, P-trend = 4 x 10\(^{-5}\)) and there was marginal evidence of association with ER- negative breast cancer for BRCA2 mutation carriers (HR = 0.78, 95% CI: 0.62 to 1.00, P-trend = 0.049).
Conclusions: The present findings, in combination with previously identified modifiers of risk, will ultimately lead to more accurate risk prediction and an improved understanding of the disease etiology in BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers.
Background: There is much evidence that T cells are strongly involved in the pathogenesis of localized and systemic forms of scleroderma (SSc). A dysbalance between FoxP3+ regulatory CD4+ T cells (Tregs) and inflammatory T-helper (Th) 17 cells has been suggested. Methods: The study aimed (1) to investigate the phenotypical and functional characteristics of Th17 and Tregs in SSc patients depending on disease manifestation (limited vs. diffuse cutaneous SSc, dcSSc) and activity, and (2) the transcriptional level and methylation status of Th17- and Treg-specific transcription factors. Results: There was a concurrent accumulation of circulating peripheral IL-17-producing CCR6+ Th cells and FoxP3+ Tregs in patients with dcSSc. At the transcriptional level, Th17- and Treg-associated transcription factors were elevated in SSc. A strong association with high circulating Th17 and Tregs was seen with early, active, and severe disease presentation. However, a diminished suppressive function on autologous lymphocytes was found in SSc-derived Tregs. Significant relative hypermethylation was seen at the gene level for RORC1 and RORC2 in SSc, particularly in patients with high inflammatory activity. Conclusions: Besides the high transcriptional activity of T cells, attributed to Treg or Th17 phenotype, in active SSc disease, Tregs may be insufficient to produce high amounts of IL-10 or to control proliferative activity of effector T cells in SSc. Our results suggest a high plasticity of Tregs strongly associated with the Th17 phenotype. Future directions may focus on enhancing Treg functions and stabilization of the Treg phenotype.
Age related macular degeneration (AMD) is the leading cause of visual impairment in the elderly and the major cause of blindness in the developed world. To date, the molecular mechanisms underlying the disease are not well understood although in recent years a primary involvement of the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) has become evident. The aim of the present study is to systematically analyse genes which are differentially expressed in the RPE, and to assess their possible association with mechanisms and pathways likely to be related to retinal disease, in particular AMD. Towards this goal, 2379 expressed sequence tags (ESTs) were established from an inhouse generated RPE cDNA library. This library was constructed by using the suppression subtraction hybridization (SSH) technique which normalises redundant sequences and ensures enrichment of rare transcripts. In a first phase, 1002 ESTs were sequenced and subjected to comprehensive alignment with public nucleotide and protein databases. A search of the 1002 ESTs against the human genome draft sequence yielded 168 known genes, 51 predicted genes, 15 unknown transcripts and 41 clones with no significant similarity. Reverse Northern blot hybridization was performed for 318 EST clusters to identify abundantly expressed genes in the RPE and to prioritize subsequent analyses. Representative clones were spotted onto a nylon membrane and hybridized with cDNA probes of driver (heart and liver) and tester (RPE) used in the cDNA library construction. Subsequently, 107 EST clusters were subjected to Northern blot hybridizations. These analyses identified 7 RPE-specific, 3 retina-specific, 7 RPE/retina-specific, and 7 tissue restricted transcripts, while 29 EST clusters were ubiquitously expressed, and evaluation was not possible for another 54 EST clusters. Of the 24 transcripts with specific or restricted expression, 16 clones were selected for further characterization. The predicted gene MGC2477 and 2 novel isoforms of the human transient receptor potential cation channel, subfamily M, member 3 (TRPM3) were cloned and further described in detail. In addition, polymorphic variations for these 2 genes as well as for the human MT-Protocadherin gene were determined. For MGC2477, 15 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were identified, with 13 having a frequency of the minor allele greater than 20%. 10 of the 15 SNPs have not been reported in so far in public SNP repertoires. Partial assessment of the TRPM3 gene yielded 35 SNPs. Of these, 30 (85.7%) were highly frequent (0.17-0.5%), and 14 (40%) were novel. The MT-Protocadherin gene revealed 35 SNPs, including 28 (80%) with high frequency of the minor allele. 23 (65.7%) were novel SNPs. These SNPs will be used to construct the most common haplotypes. These will be used in case/control association studies in 400 AMD patients and 200 ethnically and aged matched controls to assess a possible contribution of these genes in the etiology of AMD.