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Marine sponges are the most ancient metazoans and of large ecological importance as drivers of water and nutrient flows in benthic habitats. Furthermore marine sponges are well known for their association with highly abundant and diverse microbial consortia. Microorganisms inhabit the extracellular matrix of marine sponges where they can make up to 35% of the sponge’s biomass. Many microbial symbionts of marine sponges are highly host specific and cannot, or only in very rare abundances, be found outside of their host environment. Of special interest is the candidate phylum Poribacteria that was first discovered in marine sponges and still remains almost exclusive to their hosts. Phylogenetically Poribacteria were placed into the Planctomycetes, Verrucomicrobia, Chlamydiae superphylum and similarly to many members of this superphylum cell compartmentation has been proposed to occur in members of the Poribacteria. The status as a candidate phylum implies that no member of Poribacteria has been obtained in culture yet. This restricts the investigations of Poribacteria and their interactions with marine sponges to culture independent methods and makes functional characterisation a difficult task.
In this PhD thesis I used the novel method of single-cell genomics to investigate the genomic potential of the candidate phylum Poribacteria. Single-cell genomics enables whole genome sequencing of uncultivated microorganisms by singularising cells from the environment, subsequent cell lysis and multiple displacement amplification of the total genomic DNA. This process yields sufficient amounts of DNA for whole genome sequencing and genome analysis. This technique and its relevance for symbiosis studies are discussed in this PhD thesis.
Through the application of single-cell genomics it was possible to increase the number of single-amplified genomes of the candidate phylum Poribacteria from initially one to a total of six. Analyses of these datasets made it possible to enhance our understanding of the metabolism, taxonomy, and phylum diversity of Poribacteria and thus made these one of the best-characterised sponge symbionts today. The poribacterial genomes represented three phylotypes within the candidate phylum of which one appeared dominant. Phylogenetic and phylogenomic analyses revealed a novel phylogenetic positioning of Poribacteria distinctly outside of the Planctomycete, Verrucomicorbia, Chlamydiae superphylum. The occurrence of cell compartmentation in Poribacteria was also revisited based on the obtained genome sequences and revealed evidence for bacterial microcompartments instead of the previously suggested nucleotide-like structures. An extensive genomic repertoire of glycoside hydrolases, glycotransferases, and other carbohydrate active enzymes was found to be the central shared feature between all poribacterial genomes and showed that Poribacteria are among those marine bacteria with the largest genomic repertoire for carbohydrate degradation. Detailed analysis of the carbohydrate metabolism revealed that Poribacteria have the genomic potential for degradation of a variety of polymers, di- and monosaccharaides that allow these symbionts to feed various nutrient sources accessible through the filter-feeding activities of the sponge host. Furthermore the poribacterial glycobiome appeared to enable degradation of glycosaminoglycan chains, one of the main building blocks of extracellular matrix of marine sponges. Different lifestyles resulting from the poribacterial carbohydrate degradation potential are discussed including the influence of nutrient cycling in sponges, nutrient recycling and scavenging. The findings of this thesis emphasise the long overlooked importance of heterotrophic symbionts such as Poribacteria for the interactions with marine sponges and represent a solid basis for future studies of the influence heterotrophic symbionts have on their sponge hosts.
Untersuchungen zur Diversität, Abundanz und vertikalen Weitergabe von Bakterien in marinen Schwämmen
(2013)
Marine Schwämme (Phylum Porifera) gehören mit ihrem ersten Auftreten im Präkambrium vor ungefähr 580 Millionen Jahren zu den ältesten Vertretern der Metazoen weltweit. Ähnlich lange leben sie wahrscheinlich schon in Symbiose mit Mikroorganismen. In der vorliegenden Doktorarbeit soll der karibische Schwamm Ectyoplasia ferox als Modellsystem zur Erforschung der Schwamm-assoziierten mikrobiellen Konsortien, deren Weitergabe und Interaktionen mit dem Schwamm, vorgestellt werden. Mit Hilfe von 16S rRNA-Genbanken sowie der denaturierenden Gradienten-Gelelektrophorese (DGGE) konnte gezeigt werden, dass Symbionten aus sechs der in E. ferox gefundenen acht Phyla sowie der „sponge-associated unclassified lineage” SAUL vertikal an die nächste Schwammgeneration weitergegeben werden. Mittels phylogenetischer Analysen wurden insgesamt 21 „vertical transmission“ (VT) Cluster identifiziert, von denen 19 in „sponge specific“ Cluster (SSC) bzw. „sponge coral“ Clustern (SCC) lagen. Daraus kann man schließen, dass ein Großteil des mikrobiellen Konsortiums von E. ferox über die reproduktiven Stadien weitergegeben wird. Auch konnten zwei Cyanobakterien identifiziert werden, die nicht in den reproduktiven Stadien vorhanden waren und höchstwahrscheinlich horizontal aus dem umgebenden Meerwasser aufgenommen wurden. Eine Reduzierung von 50% der Symbionten im Mesohyl nach dem „spawning“ zeigte erstmalig experimentell auf, dass Schwammsymbionten aus dem Schwamm in das umgebende Meerwasser gelangen können. In dieser Arbeit wurde zum ersten Mal der „presence vs. activity“-Vergleich zur Feststellung der metabolischen Aktivität von Bakterien auf die DGGE-Methode übertragen. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass die meisten mikrobiellen Symbionten im Adult-Schwamm, Embryo- sowie Larvalstadium metabolisch aktiv waren. Erste Versuche die Anzahl von Symbionten in den Larven von E. ferox mittels Antibiotika zu reduzieren, verliefen positiv. So wiesen die mit Antibiotika behandelten Larven in der DGGE eine deutliche Reduzierung der Bandenintensität auf. Die Verfügbarkeit aller reproduktiver Stadien von E. ferox sowie die Möglichkeit die Larven im Labor experimentell zu manipulieren, machen E. ferox zu einem geeigneten Modellschwamm für zukünftige Studien bezüglich der vertikalen Weitergabe von Symbionten.
While beneficial sponge-microbe associations have received much attention in recent years, less effort has been undertaken to investigate the interactions of sponges with potentially pathogenic microorganisms. Thus, the aim of this study was to examine two selected Caribbean disease conditions, termed “Sponge Orange Band” and “Sponge White Patch”, via ecological and molecular methods. Sponge Orange Band (SOB) disease affects the prominent Caribbean barrel sponge Xestospongia muta that is counted among the high-microbial-abundance (HMA) sponges, whereas Sponge White Patch (SWP) disease affects the abundant rope sponge Amphimedon compressa that belongs to the low-microbial-abundance (LMA) sponges. I have documented for both Caribbean sponge diseases a disease progression going along with massive tissue destruction as well as loss of the characteristic microbial signatures. Even though new bacteria were shown to colonize the bleached areas, the infection trials revealed in both cases no indication for the involvement of a microbial pathogen as an etiologic agent of disease leaving us still in the dark about the cause of Sponge Orange Band as well as Sponge White Patch disease.